CHAPTER 26
SEMIOTICS
Outline
I. Introduction.
A. The goal of semiotics is interpreting both verbal and nonverbal signs.
B. Roland Barthes held the Chair of Literary Semiology at the College of France.
C. In Mythologies, he sought to decipher the cultural meaning of visual signs,
particularly those perpetuating dominant social values.
II. Wrestling with signs.
A. Barthes initially described his semiotic theory as an explanation of myth.
B. Barthes’ true concern was with connotation—the ideological baggage that signs carry
wherever they go.
C. The structure of signs is key to Barthes’ theory.
D. Ferdinand de Saussure coined the term semiology to refer to the study of signs.
E. A sign is the combination of its signifier and signified.
1. The signifier is the image; the signified is the concept.
2. In Barthes’ terms, the signifier isn’t the sign of the signified—rather the sign is
the combination of signifier and signified, which are united in an inseparable
bond.
4. The relationship between the signifier and the signified in a verbal sign is
arbitrary.
5. The relationship between the signifier and the signified in a nonverbal sign is
based on affinity and is therefore quasi-arbitrary.
F. A sign does not stand on its own: it is part of a system.
2. Barthes believed semiotic systems function the same way despite their apparent
diversity.
3. Significant semiotic systems create myths that affirm the status quo as natural,
inevitable, and eternal.
III. The yellow ribbon transformation: From forgiveness to pride.
A. Not all semiological systems are mythic.
B. Mythic or connotative systems are second-order semiological systems built off
preexisting denotative sign systems.
C. Within mythic systems, the sign of the first system becomes the signifier of the
second.
D. The yellow ribbons, first popularized in the 1972 song, “Tie a Yellow Ribbon ‘round
ol’ Oak Tree,” serve as an example of this transformation.
IV. The making of myth: Stripping the sign of its history.
A. Every ideological sign is the result of two interconnected sign systems.
B. The first system is strictly descriptive as the signifier image and the signified concept
combine to produce the denotative sign.
C. The second system appropriates the sign of the denotative system and makes it the
signifier of the connotative system.
D. This lateral shift transforms a neutral sign into an ideological tool.
E. The original denotative sign is not lost, but it is impoverished.
V. Unmasking the myth of a homogeneous society.
A. Only those who understand semiotics can detect the hollowness of connotative
signs.
B. Throughout his life, Roland Barthes deciphered and labeled the ideologies foisted
upon naive consumers of images.
C. All his semiotic efforts were directed at unmasking what he considered the heresy of
those who controlled the images of society—the naturalizing of history.
VI. The semiotics of mass communication: “I’d like to be like Mike.”
A. Because signs are integral to mass communication, Barthes’ semiotic analysis has
become an essential media theory.
B. Kyong Kim argues that the mass signification arising in a response to signs is an
artificial effect calculated to achieve something else.
C. Advertisements on television create layers of connotation that reaffirm the status
quo.
VII. Semiotics goes to the movies
A. More than one hundred years ago when Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure was
describing a sign as the combination of the signifier and signified, American
philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce was independently developing his own model of
how signs work.
VIII. Critique: Do mythic signs always reaffirm the status quo?
A. Roland Barthes’ semiotics fulfills five of the criteria of a good interpretive theory
exceedingly well: New understanding of people, aesthetic appeal, qualitative
analysis, proposal for reforming society, and clarification of values.
B. Yet the majority of communication scholars in the United States ignore the field of
semiotics and the work of its central theorists such as Barthes; thus it does not as
strongly meet the standard of community of agreement.
C. There are questions about Barthes’ view that all connotative systems uphold the
values of the dominant class.
D. Scholars such as Anne Norton and Douglas Kellner expand Barthes’ semiotic
approach to argue that signs can subvert the status quo or exemplify a
countercultural connotative system.
E. Barthes’ semiotic approach to imagery remains a core theoretical perspective for
communication scholars, particularly those who emphasize media and culture.
Key Names and Terms
Roland Barthes
A French semiologist who held the Chair of Literary Semiology at the College of France
and whose theorizing focused on the cultural meaning of signs.
Ferdinand de Saussure
A Swiss linguist who coined the term semiology.
Semiotics (Semiology)
The study of the social production of meaning from sign systems; the analysis of
anything that can stand for something else.
Myth
The connotative meaning that signs carry wherever they go; myth makes what is
cultural seem natural.
Sign
The inseparable combination of the signifier and the signified.
Signifier
The physical form of the sign as we perceive it through our senses; an image.
Signified
The meaning we associate with the sign.
Denotative sign system
A descriptive sign without ideological content.
Connotative sign system
A mythic sign that has lost its historical referent; form without substance.
Deconstruction
University of Pennsylvania political scientist and UCLA media scholar (formerly from the
University of Texas at Austin), respectively, who expand Barthes’ semiotic approach to
account for how signs may subvert the status quo.
Principal Changes
This chapter has been shortened and simplified. It no longer attempts to describe
Peirce’s alternative theory of semiotics, but continues to refer to his classification of signs as
Kick-off Questions & Interaction Starters
• What are some examples of signs that frequently appear on your campus? In the
community? In your nation?
• If you don’t know the “full” or original meaning of a sign, can it be equally powerful?
• Since signs are interpreted by the receiver, do they have any stable or objective
meaning?
• Is there any really “new” sign, or is everything an iteration of something that came
before?
Suggestions for Discussion
Clarifying Barthes’ analysis
Like the treatment of CMM, this chapter demonstrates the inherent limitations of
concise summaries of the complex, constantly evolving theories of wide-ranging thinkers. In
order to fill in key gaps in your students’ understanding, you may need to bring additional
material to class. In particular, I would recommend providing a bit more of the text of Barthes’
analysis of wrestling. To vivify Barthes’ claim that mythic signs reinforce the dominant values
of their culture, you might quote at length from pages 21-23 of “The World of Wrestling,” where
Barthes explains the way in which the spectacle of wrestling communicates the concept of
“justice” to the audience. Be sure your students understand how justice is naturalized as the
The first-order to second-order transition
The relationship between a first-order, denotative system and a second-order,
connotative system is often difficult to understand. Students have a tendency to view
semiotics as a kind of simpleminded symbolism akin to the literary criticism they picked up in
high-school English classes, so you may have to push them to see beyond the obvious
“standing for” relationships. In addition to walking students through the yellow-ribbon example
from the text, I’d recommend working through the fourth exercise in Questions to Sharpen Your
Focus in the textbook. Since many of your students will be unfamiliar with opera, the original
When the sign from the denotative system becomes the signifier of the connotative
system, a new signified emerges—the more generic notion of not losing hope until the event or
game is completely finished. The overall sign of the connotative system evokes dogged
patience and American optimism—“never say never.” After all, in the connotative system the
details of the conclusion are not yet known. The new meaning is very similar to the famous
Religious and holiday symbols also form a rich text for examples. You might explore the
move from the egg as a pagan symbol of new birth to the Eastern Orthodox Church dying the
eggs red to the commercialization of the holiday with the egg as its symbol, complete with the
Easter Bunny. The early Christian Orthodox churches co-opted a sign (signifier: egg; signified:
fertility, new life) and added their own layer of meaning— to be “born again” (receive new life)
was only possible through the blood of the crucified Jesus. Thus, the blood-red eggs are a
second-order sign. How did we get from the Eastern Orthodox’s blood red died eggs to the
Easter bunny in every shopping mall in America? Signs evolve and change. It can be
continually co-opted into such occasions as the egg hunt on the White House lawn, possible
even with a separation between church and state because the egg is no longer a religious
Another excellent example, researched by one of my former students, is the
transformation of the swastika from a symbol representing the sun, life, and good luck into the
symbol of Nazi Germany. As a symbol, the swastika has a long lineage, with evidence it adored
pottery as early as 1000 BC. For centuries, it had widespread application, including on the
shoulder patches of the American 45th Division during the first World War. In Germany, the
symbol started to appear at the end of the 19th century and was chosen to denote German
to remind students of the flap that Britain’s Prince Harry caused when he wore a swastika-
adorned armband to a costume party in 2005.
Everything old is new again
You might discuss with your students the reoccurrence of trends in fashion or
entertainment along semiotic lines. A trend that came to mean something may make
reappearance with a whole new set of meanings and assumptions. One recent example is the
re-emergence of legwarmers. It is interesting to note that at the height of their popularity in
the 1980s, legwarmers were already a 2nd order sign, imported from ballet dancers who had a
functional purpose for them. Starting in the 1980s after the aerobics craze and then through
popular television shows and films such as Fame and Flashdance, the accessory has been
making a come-back in the 2010s. You might ask students to speculate what it stood for in
the 1980s and what it now signifies. Then, they can offer an explanation for the latest fad—
armwarmers.
In the same way, you might discuss the recent trend of “rebooting” TV shows and
movies from previous decades for a new generation. Some examples include Battlestar
Galactica (1970s network TV show; 2000s cable TV reboot), Boy Meets World (90s network TV
show; 2010s cable reboot as Girl Meets World), Full House (80s/90s network TV show; 2010s
Netflix reboot as Fuller House), Planet of the Apes (60s/70s movie series; 2010s movie
reboot), and Star Trek (60s network TV show; 80s/90s syndicated TV reboot #1; 2010s
streaming TV reboot #2; and then there’s the films with the original crew, the Next Generation
crew, and most recently the J. J. Abrams film reboot in an alternate universe). At least two
other venerable blockbuster franchises provide ripe examples: Star Wars, which is now in its
third generation (original trilogy in the 70s/80s, the prequel trilogy in the late 90s/early
2000s, and the sequel trilogy and associated Star Wars Story films begun in 2015), and James
Fantasizing themes
To discuss Barthes’ contributions to media theory, ask students to reflect on the
“fantasized themes” (to use Kyong Kim’s phrase) that advertising tries to sell us in addition to
their products. In an era in which commercials seem to be ever more loosely linked to the
advertised product itself, students should be able to develop a sense of Kim’s Barthian
Other notable works by Barthes
In order to avoid inaccurate pigeonholing, students may benefit from understanding
that Barthes was an eclectic, innovative theorist whose perspective on signs was constantly
shifting. The theoretical material presented in this chapter represents only a few of his many
intellectual phases. In this light, it’s important to note that much of his most famous work
concerned literary signs and codes. In order to vivify this point, you may wish to show students
samples of some of his later work. In particular, I would recommend giving them a look at S/Z,
trans. Richard Miller (Hill and Wang, New York 1974), a book-length analysis of the complex
semiotic verbal codes present in Honore de Balzac’s short story, “Sarrasine.” Another option is
Taking down the monuments
In 2017, the Unite the Right rally and counter-protests in Charlottesville, Virginia started
as a semiotic-related issue. Monuments to Confederate States and heroes that had been
erected largely during the Jim Crow era in the American South became the topic of controversy.
Those who campaigned for their removal argued that they commemorate a racist past that
ought not be celebrated, one steeped in racial oppression of African Americans. Critics of the
removals claimed it was an attempt to erase the history of the Civil War South. Bringing this
topic to class could provide a useful illustration of the signifier-signified-sign relationship in
Barthes’ theory. It’s worth noting that some states have passed laws prohibiting the removal of
the monuments. In these states, a Barthian reading might identify the statues themselves as
Finding Barthes in the strangest places
Some students who appreciate random trivia items may appreciate a rather obscure
discovery of Barthes in popular culture. In the feature film, The Truth About Cats and Dogs, the
two main characters, Abby and Brian, get to know each other very intimately after spending an
evening talking on the phone. During this phone call, Brian reads Abby a portion of Barthes’
Camera Lucida, his treatise on photography.
Sample Application Log
Katherine
Michael Jordan played most of his game (especially his slam dunks) with his mouth hanging
wide and his tongue wagging. This has come to signify talent, expectation of greatness, and
pride. Jordan wanna-bees across the country picked up this little quirk. For them, keeping
their mouth open signifies Michael Jordan, and therefore, being cool, talented, and better than
everyone else. The image of superiority, however, is not derived from any comparable history
of success or talent of their own; it’s based on myth. {E.
Exercises and Activities
Mr. Potatohead: He’s not who you think he is
For this exercise to work best, I would suggest you bring to class an actual object: the
children’s toy, Mr. Potatohead. In my case, I happen to have the vintage one (complete with
box!) I played with as a child forty years ago. But, I warn you: be prepared to be a bit shocked
when some of your students will not realize that, as a toy, he pre-dates the Toy Story film
series. For them, that’s the first-order sign and his represented ideology—the character as
displayed in the film, a bubbling, loving albeit slightly neurotic figure. In the Pixar franchise, he
is moody, crabby, and sometimes unfriendly to Woody. Where did this version of Mr.
Potatohead come from? You might go back a few turns with your students. The plastic version
With rotting produce sitting around playrooms and increased governmental safety
restrictions on children’s toys, Mr. Potatohead might have fallen out of favor save for the wide-
spread commercialization of plastics. Now, in a more sanitary and safe package, Mr.
Potatohead came with a potato-like plastic body and accessories that could be used on and
stored in the body. Thus, Mr. Potatohead was re-invented as a fun toy that was portable (in an
era of road trips and plane rides) all the while homogenizing play—since your options were now
limited to the predrilled holes.
By the time he ended up in the Disney/Pixar movie (1995), Mr. Potatohead was already
on (at least) his third time around as a sign. At this point, your students might be able to tell
the story moving forward. What do the Pixar films represent as their own set of signs and
Potatohead as one of the characters? What ideology do they communicate about friendship,
the human spirt, and loyalty—all new values placed on a 60-plus-year-old signifier?
Signs that don’t mean what we think they mean
You might explore with your students some symbols that have transitioned over time.
My students had a pretty lively discussion about how the peace symbol, whose iconography
was selected and the graphic created based on a “ban the bomb” campaign incorporating the
flag symbols for “N” and “D” (Nuclear Disarmament). But, as that context is lost or morphed
into free love or “groovy,” does the sign lose its power, or does it gain power through rebirth?
This “Cracked” article may likely give you some other ideas to pursue:
http://www.cracked.com/article_19909_6-famous-symbols-that-dont-mean-what-you-
think.html
The WWF in the classroom
To test Barthes’ analysis of wrestling in a contemporary context, consider showing video
segments of American wrestling to your class. Ask your students to predict from the
introduction of the wrestlers the style and outcome of the match. Challenge them to identify
the perpetuation of dominant cultural values in these grotesque dramas. Some of your
students may enjoy grappling with the theoretical jump from signifier to signified. The brief
political career of former wrestler Jesse “The Body” Ventura—and all that it connotes—serves
as an intriguing case study for such analysis. After a quirky election won him the governorship
of Minnesota, Ventura attempted to translate the moral drama he acted so successfully in the
In some ways, the case of Arnold Schwarzenegger, the former governor of California, is
not dissimilar. Seemingly becoming the muscular, independent-minded, heroic persona he
popularized in blockbuster films such as The Terminator, candidate Schwarzenegger (the
denotative sign) swept into office with tough-guy pledges to run the crooks and incompetents
out of Sacramento, restore a positive business climate by eliminating sinister disincentives to
do business in California, and rescue government from the dark forces of evil such as tax-and–
spend liberals and greedy special-interest groups (who turned out to be teachers, firefighters,
nurses, and other relatively modest public servants). At the level of the connotative system,
“Schwarzenegger the action figure” communicated the more general ideological position (very
much tied up in the myth of the traditional American dream) that rugged, decisive,
uncompromising individualism works outside the system to overcome corporate malevolence
Ventura, Schwarzenegger, Rocky Balboa, or John Rambo in class, encourage your students to
identify the denotative and connotative semiotic systems that characterize these provocative
signs.
Other texts for analysis
Not everyone enjoys watching and then discussing the theoretical implications of
oversized men beating on one another, of course, so you may consider discussing other sorts
of semiotic systems, particularly those from the mass media. Automobile ads capture the
imagination of most college students and make excellent texts for Barthian analysis. Bring in
magazine ads or find commercials on YouTube featuring both contemporary cars and those
from previous decades and discuss how they, too, can be viewed as complex signs. What do
differences in size, power, performance, styling, gas efficiency, and country of origin signify?
To advance the discussion, refer to the ideas of Kyong Kim, who suggests that advertisers play
productive discussion about signs that were subversive at one time, but have since been co-
opted by mainstream society. An excellent resource to use when considering this issue is the
Frontline documentary, The Merchants of Cool, which explicitly addresses how what is “on the
edge” of youth culture is turned into what is “cool.” The film also illustrates how “cool”
becomes the content (the “signified”) which is marketed to youth.
Further Resources
An excellent supplementary text for this chapter is Jonathan Bignell, Media Semiotics: An
Introduction, Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK, 1997.
A good source for articles on semiotics is the American Journal of Semiotics.
In the Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition, see:
• James S. Baumlin, “Barthes,” in Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition, Theresa
Enos (ed.), Routledge, New York, 1996, pp. 66-67.
General discussion of semiotics
Mutlu Er, “The Active Role of the Recipient in Decoding an Advertisement Respectively a
Poster,” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 70, 2013, pp. 52–60.
Lucy O’Meara, “‘Whose Contemporary Am I?’: Recent Writing on Roland
896.
Cinzia Bianchi, “Semiotic Approaches to Advertising Texts and Strategies: Narrative, Passion,
Marketing,” Semiotica, Issue 183, 2011, pp. 243-271.
Pat Brereton and Robert Furze, “Transcendence and The Tree of Life: Beyond the Face of the