Speech Chapter 2 Homework Todays Situation Summary The Current Situation

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Part 2, p. 118

LINES OF ARGUMENT

The arguments were designed to be used in policy arguments, but they provide good direction in

challenging claims of all varieties. They are divided into three types:

1. Lines of argument regarding the ill, or problem, with the present system

2. Lines of argument on evidence

3. Lines of argument on advantages claimed for a specific proposal

These lists should be used when challenging arguments in a debate.

Lines of argument regarding the ill, or problem, with the present system:

• The speaker did not present the proper inductive proof—that is, evidence exemplifying the

asserted cause-and-effect relationship.

• There are examples to the contrary, followed by the presentation of such examples.

• The speaker did not show that the cause given is the only cause, and not merely a

contributing cause.

• The speaker did not show that the present system is the direct cause of the ill. Is the ill

caused by the lack of this proposal?

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Lines of argument on evidence:

• Do the figures tell us what we really want to know?

• Was the observer in a position to get the facts or conduct a study?

• Is the observer trained to conduct research? Is he or she an expert?

• Is the observer free from prejudice?

• Is the observer free from exaggeration?

Lines of argument on advantages claimed for a specific proposal:

• The speaker failed to explain that the proposal has the power or the means to solve the ill.

• The speaker failed to show any widespread ill, and therefore that any significant advantage

would result from the policy.

• The speaker failed to show that authorities in the field have testified that the proposal

would remove the ill.

• The speaker failed to show that had the proposal been in effect, it would have prevented the

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FALLACIES

Quite often, claims are made in arguments that sound valid but also seem a bit fishy. Usually,

audiences will stop a moment to try to figure out why a speaker’s claims seem suspicious but will

eventually continue listening to the speaker’s comments. Although a speaker’s arguments may be

persuasive to the untrained ear, an arguer or a listener who is skilled in forms of critical thinking

can identify fallacies or weaknesses in the reasoning of others. The following are names and

examples of fallacies that are frequently used in argument.

• Begging the question: Begging the question is an argument stated in such a way that it

cannot help but be true, even though no evidence has been presented. One example is the

statement “War kills.”

• Ad hominem: Ad hominem is the first type of argument most people become aware of.

Literally, ad hominem means “to the person.” Arguments made to the person are intended

to attack the messenger rather than the message. Children often call one another names. In

most cases, they get better at it as they grow older. Attacking the person distracts audiences

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from the argument at hand and is intended to affect the ethos or credibility of the opponent.

Unfortunately, it is often interpreted as a last-ditch effort to salvage a losing argument.

• Red herring: Red herring is the type of argument that introduces immaterial information

into a debate in order to divert attention away from the issues at hand. Extraneous

knowledge, data, or facts that do not directly relate to the argument may temporarily

CONCLUSION

Although the preceding material introduces a lot of specific terminology and names, it also

describes concepts that communicators use every day. These ideas are organized to help us

become more aware of the techniques we and others use to persuade; to better understand how we

References

Adler, J. (1997, March 31). Unbeliever’s quest. Time, 64–65.

Huber, R. B. (1963). Influencing through argument. New York: David McKay.

Lawson-Tancred, H. C. (1991). Aristotle: The art of rhetoric. New York: Penguin.

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ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING THE PERSUASIVE DEBATE

Time: 4 minutes

• There are four members per group (this may vary by class size).

• Two people will argue affirmatively, and two people will argue negatively.

Debate Speaking Order Time (in minutes)

2. First negative speaker 4

4. Second negative speaker _____________________________________________ 4

6. Rebuttal by affirmative team __________________________________________ 2

7. Audience questions and answers _______________________________________ 10

Rationale: Traditionally, the affirmative side goes first because it is indicting the status quo.

Not until an argument is put forth is there reason for the negative side to speak. To its benefit, the

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negative side is given presumption. The audience is told to assume that the present system is fine;

not unless the affirmative side can identify a large ill should there be reason for society to act.

Steps for Building a Debate/Debate Job Descriptions

The first affirmative speaker has three specific jobs:

2. Define ambiguous terms.

3. Present support or reasons for the audience to believe the resolution (the cause of the ill) is true,

1. Identify the resolution, and present the negative thesis regarding the falseness of the resolution

2. Present the negative speaker’s definitions of ambiguous terms. These may or may not differ

from the affirmative speaker’s perspective. In the event the negative speaker argues with the

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3. Present the reasons that the resolution is false.

The second affirmative speaker has a very different job: refutation. This person must:

1. Remind us of what the affirmative thesis is and briefly explain why this argument is stronger.

3. Employ the lines of argument to test the validity of the claims made by the negative speaker.

The job of the second negative speaker, like that of the second affirmative speaker, is

refutation. This speaker must:

1. Briefly remind us of the negative thesis and address definitional issues (if any).

3. Defend against attacks made by the second affirmative speaker.

The affirmative rebuttal is much more difficult. The speaker must:

2. Explain how the negative speaker has failed to support the negative side’s argument

(including any affirmative attacks the speaker failed to fend off).

3. Defend against questions raised by the negative speaker in relation to the affirmative

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Outline Worksheet for Group Presentation Option 2

Title:

Speakers:

Specific Purpose:

Intended Audience:

Introduction

2. Identify the intended audience:

4. Thematic statement: recommending a strategy (ideas for today and tomorrow)

5. Introduce group members and the topic each will be speaking on.

(Transition: to the next speaker)

I. Vision Statement

A. State the vision and long-term direction. Use subpoints and/or supporting material.

(Internal summary)

(Transition)

II. Goals and Objectives

A. State the desired goal.

(Internal summary)

(Transition)

III. Today’s Situation

A. Summary of the current situation. Number items or use bullets; discuss details orally.

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(Internal summary)

(Transition)

IV. How Did We Get Here?

A. Any relevant historical information

B. Original assumptions that are no longer valid

(Internal summary)

(Transition)

V. Description of Available Options

A. State the strategies you recommend and whether there are other options.

(Internal summary)

(Transition)

VI. Cost Analysis

A. Cost of each option

B. Comparison of rewards versus costs

(Internal summary)

(Transition)

VII. Recommendation

A. Recommend one or more of the strategies.

B. Summarize the results if things go as proposed.

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Part 2, p. 128

GUIDELINES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR EVALUATING STUDENT SPEECHES

The following guidelines are provided to help instructors establish objective policies for grading

oral and written presentations.

In the basic public speaking course, instructors evaluate students’ oral and written

competencies. Content-based examinations are an important part of the course because students

should be able to understand and explain how and why specific speaking concepts and strategies

apply and operate in various speech settings based on the context for and the purpose of the speech.

As long as instructors explain the rationale behind testing cognitive learning, the objective

On the other hand, another equally important goal of the public speaking course is oral

performance; hence, grades from speeches should make up at least one-half of the student’s grade

for the course. Evaluating students’ speaking skills often proves more difficult for teachers,

Instructors can attain fairness and objectivity in their grading of speeches simply by outlining

the grading criteria for students when the assignment is made. At that time, instructors should

distribute a written list of the criteria and explain in detail exactly what students must do to meet

those criteria. For inexperienced instructors, determining and explaining to students how their

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and discuss their evaluations with the course director or a more experienced instructor. Another

possibility is to sit in on another class on speech day, use that instructor’s prepared grading criteria

to evaluate the speakers, and then compare one’s evaluations with the instructor’s.

The alternatives for grading procedures for student speeches are numerous. Instructors must

decide whether they want to grade holistically, by outlining speech objectives (e.g., specific

purpose, adherence to assignment, improvement since last speech) and evaluating how well

In addition to specific grading criteria, most instructors will want to offer students some

commentary on what they observe as effective or ineffective, appropriate or not appropriate in

their speech content or presentation style. Two considerations are important here. First, instructors

must remember that the goal is student learning; harsh criticism and denigration will only serve to

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that they can improve their performance and that they have personal control over their

improvement.

A second consideration for instructors is when to provide feedback. Most instructional

research suggests that immediate feedback is key to students’ learning and motivation. Depending

on the size of the class, however, immediate oral feedback may not be possible. One way to

address this time constraint is to allow students to see their evaluations at the end of class on the

EVALUATING ONLINE SOURCES

In discussing online research with students and evaluating online sources, instructors should

consider both source and information factors. Suzanne Osborn (1997) suggests several questions

that can be used to assess internet-specific resources. With respect to source factors, she identifies

five specific questions or considerations.

1. Is an author or a URL provided?

2. Is the source an authority on the subject?

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5. Is the source trustworthy and relatively unbiased?

With respect to the information factors, she identifies several questions as well.

1. Is the source identified?

2. Is the information recent?

3. Is the information cross-referenced with other sources, and are links provided to access

GUIDE TO INCORPORATING VIDEO CLIPS

A comprehensive video database is available through LaunchPad at launchpadworks.com. The

platform hosts a collection of more than 180 speech clips and full speeches, demonstrating

everything from organizational flow to making evidence understandable. Speech lengths vary

from a few seconds to a few minutes. Speech topics coincide with the concepts presented in A

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EVALUATION SHEETS

This section contains forms that instructors can photocopy and use to evaluate student speeches, as

well as forms that instructors can distribute to students to help them critique peer speeches in class.

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Part 2, p. 133

Grading Sheet for Speech 1

Special Occasion Speech

Name __________________________ Topic __________________________

Type of Speech (circle one): eulogy, speech of introduction, toast

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS (10) Agree Disagree

Interesting and creative topic 5 4 3 2 1

Tone of speech proper for speech type 5 4 3 2 1

INTRODUCTION (10)

Gained attention 5 4 3 2 1

BODY (10)

Organizational pattern that explains key ideas 5 4 3 2 1

Created a vivid, memorable image about topic 5 4 3 2 1

CONCLUSION (10)

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Vocally expressive 2 1 0

Used purposeful gestures and movements 2 1 0

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Grading Sheet for Speech 1

Special Occasion Speech

Name _________________________

Topic _________________________

+ Excellent

܂ Satisfactory

– Needs improvement

0 Failed to complete

Type of speech (circle one): eulogy, speech of introduction, toast

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS Speech Strengths and Areas for Improvement

Interesting and creative topic _______

Tone of speech proper for speech type _______

INTRODUCTION

BODY

Organizational pattern explained key ideas _______

Created a vivid, memorable image about topic _______

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CONCLUSION

Summarized main theme ________

Creative ________

DELIVERY

Adequate eye contact ________

COMMENTS:

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Grading Sheet for Speech 2

Informative Speech

Name Topic 

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS/TOPIC CHOICE (10) Agree Disagree

INTRODUCTION (10)

Captured audience’s attention 5 4 3 2 1

Provided clear preview or road map 5 4 3 2 1

BODY (10)

CONCLUSION (10)

Reviewed major points 5 4 3 2 1

Provided memorable, creative conclusion 5 4 3 2 1

ORGANIZATION (25)

Internal summaries between major points 5 4 3 2 1

Clear transitions 5 4 3 2 1

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