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CHAPTER 2
Communication, Culture, and Work
social orientation, task orientation, uncertainty
avoidance
Describe additional factors of ethical
communication.
In the text:
Activities: 5
Ethical Challenge: Asking Hard Questions about
Ethical Behavior
Instructor’s Manual online:
Personal Reflection for Journaling Assignment
Classroom Activities: 10
Apply the guidelines in “Communicating
across Diversity” to describe six specific ways
you and others can communicate more
effectively in your workplace.
Key term: ethnocentrism
Instructor’s Manual online:
Discussion Launchers: 10-12
Classroom Activities: 11-13
Written Application Exercises: 4
Video Activities: 4
Describe the cultural challenges in a specific
organization or career and identify specific
approaches to communicate most effectively
within this culture.
Key term: organizational culture
Instructor’s Manual online:
Discussion Launchers: 13, 14
Classroom Activities: 14, 15
Written Application Exercises: 5
Video Activities: 5
About Chapter 2
Chapter 2 expands the Chapter 1 idea of communication as a process by considering cultural context.
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Since it is impossible to know everything about a culture, it is helpful to minimally understand broad
categories of differences in order to be a more astute observer of other cultures. It is imperative to
understand high- and low-context cultures, individualist and collectivist cultures, power distances,
feminine and masculine cultures, differing attitudes toward uncertainty, varying levels of comfort with
conflict and disclosure, and different attitudes about time. This knowledge assists persons in business
environments to monitor and adapt their behaviors more effectively in various cultural contexts.
Students are challenged to examine their own intercultural attitudes and competence with a discussion
of ethical dilemmas encountered in multicultural communication. Chapter 2 concludes by challenging
students to examine their own intercultural attitudes and assumptions. Guidelines for improving
intercultural competence are introduced.
Personal Reflection for Individual Journaling Assignment
Describe an experience in which you interacted with a person from a culture or co-culture that differs
from yours. What types of “noise” (which you read about in Chapter 1) were present in the
communication process? Explain how you were or were not able to communicate. Apply the guidelines
presented in this chapter for communicating across diversity to suggest ways for improving future
1. Why does your text use the word “co-culture” instead of “subculture”? Is this an important
distinction? Why or why not?
2. When you hear the word “diversity,” what thoughts, feelings, words, and images come to mind?
Where do these ideas come from? How do these ideas affect our communication with people
from other cultures and co-cultures?
3. Discuss the authors’ claim that “cultures are invisible to the people who are used to inhabiting
them.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Provide specific examples to support your
point.
4. Identify the benefits various cultures bring to the workplace. Give specific examples.
5. Have you ever experienced what it’s like to be part of a non-dominant culture? Which norms
from the dominant culture did you notice? Which norms affected you most?
6. Other than the suggestions in the text, what additional attitudes and behaviors are useful for
effective communication in the workplace between persons with and without disabilities?
7. In your own words, compare high-context versus low-context cultures. Think of other phrases
you could use to describe this contrast. Identify examples within mainstream U.S. culture that
illustrate low-context behaviors. Then, identify some examples of high-context behaviors. Which
set of examples was easier to think of? Why?
8. Think of workplace situations in which a long-term orientation might be helpful; think of other
workplace situations in which a short-term orientation might be helpful. How do these situations
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differ? If you felt your work team should adopt a longer-term view of a challenge, how might
you try to alter their attitudes?
9. Deborah Tannen wrote, “Communication is always a matter of balancing conflicting needs for
involvement and independence.” Discuss that statement as it pertains to high- and low-context
10. If a friend asked you for advice about interacting with people of diverse backgrounds in the
workplace, what would you tell her? Base your answer on the guidelines for Communicating
across Diversity found in Chapter 2 of your text.
11. What else would you like to know about effective intercultural communication and/or doing
business internationally that you don’t see in the text? Use the end-of-chapter Web and print
references in the text to answer your questions.
12. What experiences have you had interacting with people of varied cultural backgrounds? What
opportunities did you find? What challenges did you encounter? What strategies did you use to
manage those challenges?
13. Predict ways that organizations react to greater diversity within their own organizations. How do
differing reactions affect each organization’s culture?
14. What values of other cultures might enhance organizational cultures? Customer service? Sales
and marketing? Health care? (Consider, for instance, how increased numbers of women in the
workforce have changed some organizational cultures—job sharing, flexible hours, family leave,
1. Understanding Benefits of Cultural Diversity
Objective: This activity should increase students’ understanding of the benefits of cultural diversity and
common attitudinal barriers toward recognizing the benefits of diversity.
Procedure: Allow students a few moments to review the opening section of Chapter 2. Then assign
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2. Nonverbal Behaviors in Various Cultures
Objective: This activity reinforces students’ awareness of nonverbal differences in intercultural
communication.
Procedure: Ask students to explain (or demonstrate, if appropriate) examples of nonverbal
3. Communicating with Persons with Disabilities
Objective: This activity presents students with guidelines for effective communication with cultures of
disability.
Procedure: Provide students with copies of the Department of Labor’s guidelines for effective
communication with persons with disabilities, available at https://www.ada.gov/effective-comm.htm.
4. Awareness of Other Cultures
Objective: The purpose of this activity is to increase student awareness of other cultures and to classify
general information into categories described in this chapter.
Procedure: Obtain a set of descriptions of various cultural groups. Divide the class into groups, and give
each group a description of cultural norms typical to one culture.
Class Discussion: Class discussion could focus on the student’s ability to identify characteristics for the
various cultural factors.
• What characteristics do you find that indicate directness or indirectness, collectivist or
individualist, high- or low-power distance across different cultures?
• How do these characteristics affect the way individuals communicate?
• In what way does egocentrism affect the ways we respond to these various characteristics?
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5. Case Studies of Gender and Racial Discrimination
Objective: This activity provides students an opportunity to put into practice the guidelines for ethical
and intercultural communication they’ve read about in the text.
Procedure: Refer to the document titled “Racism and Sexism” available at
https://www.bliss.army.mil/IronSoldierStrong/Classes/Social/Racism-Sexism.pdf (scroll to the bottom of
6. Understanding Fundamental Dimensions of Cultural Diversity
Objective: The purpose of this activity is to reinforce students’ knowledge of characteristics of various
dimensions of cultural diversity and identify countries that represent each dimension.
Procedure: Distribute three 3” x 3” post-it notes to each student. While completing the first part of this
exercise, students should refer to the section from Chapter 2 titled “Fundamental Dimensions of Cultural
Diversity.” Ask students to select any two dimensions of diversity. Instruct them to print one
7. High and Low Context
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Objective: The purpose of this activity is to increase student understanding of the differences in high- and
low-context cultures.
Procedure: Use the examples below to help students understand high- and low-context cultures. (You
might want to display this information as a PowerPoint slide.) For example, there are differences in the
amount of talk preferred within various cultures. While research shows that men talk more than women in
mixed-sex dyads, women may want to talk about a relationship more than men do. In terms of direct and
indirect speech, there are regional differences within the U.S., with New Yorkers being noted for more
directness and Minnesotans for more indirectness. For additional examples, point out how indirect
someone offering a bribe or checking out whether someone might consider dating would be compared to
how verbal and direct a lawyer spelling out a contract would be. Many Americans find silence while
eating dinner unbearable and uncomfortable, and they expend much effort trying to minimize the silence.
Other cultures appreciate and desire silence at dinner.
Low Context
High Context
More talk
Less talk
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Verbal clues
Nonverbal and environmental clues
Expectation - anything important will be talked
about
Expectation - you will observe and learn
Class Discussion: To help students identify with the appreciation of silence, you might ask them to point
out the times when they desire silence.
• In what way has context affected the type of interaction you have had already today?
• Identify times that you desire silence and times when you find it uncomfortable.
8. Directness/Indirectness
Objective: The purpose of this activity is to encourage students to identify specific and concrete ways in
which persons communicate directly or indirectly in a variety of contexts. While the text does an effective
job of providing students with several examples of the types of communication used from each of these
perspectives, this exercise helps to facilitate class discussion around diversity contexts within an
organizational setting. In addition, this activity allows students to discuss options that each individual has
along a continuum of directness or indirectness and to assess reasons for choosing more or less directness.
Procedure: Using the handout at the end of this section titled “What Would You Do?”, have the students
read the situations listed and check the behavior that comes closest to what they believe they would do in
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• Can you be direct and polite at the same time?
• Are you more or less direct with your boss than with your coworkers? Why?
• Are you most direct in downward, horizontal, or upward communication? Why?
9. Who am I? Cultural, Social, and Foundational Values*
Objective: Gives students a chance to consider the sources of their own values, and to compare them to
other classmates’ values.
Procedure: Using the handout at the end of this section titled “Who am I? Cultural, Social, and
Foundational Values?” ask students to assess their own values. Then allow them an opportunity to
discuss and compare their values in groups. Encourage students to find examples in the text that relate to
10. Diversity and Ethical Issues
Objective: After completing this activity, students should be able to explain and apply strategies that
promote improved intercultural relations.
Procedure: Divide the class into six teams. Assign each team one of the categories of attitudes and
11. Assumptions that Promote or Block Constructive Intercultural Relations
Objective: After completing this activity, students should be able to identify attitudes and behaviors that
are constructive or destructive in promoting effective intercultural communication.
Procedure: Divide the class into six teams. Assign each team one of the categories of attitudes or
behaviors found in Table 2-6. The task of each team is to produce a three- to five-minute workshop in
which they will describe their assigned concept to the class, provide examples and illustrations, and
explain the significance of the concept to intercultural communication. After each group presents, you
may need to fill in information they have missed or clarify information that wasn’t presented clearly.
Class Discussion: Wrap up the workshop session by asking the class questions such as the following:
• Which of these behaviors or attitudes have you observed in school or the workplace?
• Which attitudes or behaviors do you find to be most helpful?
• Which do they find hardest to change in yourself?
12. Learning to Communicate with Persons from Unfamiliar Cultures*
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Objective: This exercise sensitizes students to how it might feel to become immersed in a culture
they’re not familiar with. It is difficult to communicate because we may not understand the language, the
customs, and the norms of that culture. We do not understand much of what is going on in that culture,
yet we must learn how to communicate effectively.
Procedure: Prepare students for this activity through the following steps:
• Divide students into groups of 6 to 10 students. If possible, groups should be equal in
number.
• Prepare a small slip of paper for each student with a number on it (the numbers used should
be 1 through the number of students in the group).
• Give each student one number. Their assignment is to put themselves in number order
without talking and without sharing the exact number nonverbally (e.g., do not look at the
numbers, write out the numbers, hold up an appropriate number of fingers, or tap the
appropriate number of times). To accomplish this, students will need to be open to new,
alternative ways of communicating.
• When students are sure they have placed themselves in the correct order, they should let you
know. You can then check to see if they succeeded.
Class Discussion: This exercise usually takes about 10 minutes to complete. As soon as most groups have
assembled themselves in order, reassemble the class and discuss what students learned from this
assignment. Focus on ways that students communicated with one another. Which methods seemed most
successful at engendering mutual understanding? Why? Which attitudes were most helpful? Why? You
can extend this conversation so students reflect on the strategies persons from various cultures and co-
13. Communicating Across Diversity
Objective: Students will apply principles for improving communication in a diverse work environment.
Procedure: This could be a major project that takes some time. It requires at least some outside research
from websites, guidebooks, or personal interviews with person from the target culture.
Divide the class into groups. Each group can choose a cultural group to focus on. Each group will imagine
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other cultures as well, such as cultures where it would be considered rude and a sign of poor
listening if you are not constantly saying “yeah” in response to the client’s speaking.
• Identify any other differences in customs or behavior that would help the agents set the callers at
14. Organizational Culture at Your College
Objective: After completing this activity, students should be able to identify characteristics of
organizational culture in an organization students are familiar with and part of.
Procedure: Have students form small groups to compile a description of the organizational culture at
their university or college. Instruct them to focus on the dimensions of organizational culture described in
the textbook. For each dimension, they should create a list of examples and explain the meanings the
examples hold for organizational members. After their lists are completed, have the group members
compare their lists.
Note: You can stimulate a great deal of discussion by providing videos or public relations brochures
produced by and about your school. These materials are rich sources of information regarding how the
organization views its culture.
Class Discussion: Class discussion could focus on the similarities in the group’s descriptions as well as
differences.
• How would you characterize the organizational culture?
• Why is there agreement on certain items?
• Why are there disagreements concerning the meanings of other items?
• What do these results tell us about the complexity of organizational cultures?
• What do they tell us about the source of the information?
• How do these findings illustrate the model of communication?
15. Values in Organizational Cultures
Objective: This activity introduces students to the variety of values espoused by various organizations
and the degree to which organizations achieve their espoused values.
Procedure: Ask students to brainstorm a list of popular slogans from businesses and other organizations.
You might want to ask students to bring magazines (many slogans appear in advertisements) and/or
company brochures to class.
Class Discussion: You can encourage a comparison and critique of various slogans and cultures by
presenting some of the following questions:
• What does each slogan suggest about its organization’s culture?
• Can you find any recurring themes among organizational values?
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• Which values would you be most comfortable working with?
• If your students have had personal experiences with any of the organizations, ask them
whether the organization enacts the values it espouses at all levels. (Do top management,
middle management, low-level employees, customers, and suppliers all experience the
organization’s values in the same way?)
• Is it possible for organizational members at various levels to experience the organization’s
culture in the same way? Why or why not? (Refer to the model of communication in your
explanations.)
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What Would You Do?
For each situation below, circle the letter of the response that comes closest to what you think
1. If I ask someone to do me a favor and he can’t, I would prefer that
A. he at least say he’ll try or he’ll check; then later let me know if he can’t.
2. If people come to my office to talk and I don’t have time, I would
A. talk to them anyway and hint at the fact that I had work to do.
3. If someone said she was inviting a few people from the office over for dinner and
asked you to come, and you really didn’t want to socialize with people from work,
would you say,
4. If your car was in the shop and you wanted a ride home with someone, would you
A. hint at the fact that you needed a ride?
B. come right out and ask people if they could give you a ride home?
5. A coworker asks your opinion on a project that you think is poorly done. Would you
say
A. I can see you worked hard on this; it must have been a lot of work?
B. it looks as though you still need to work on the formatting and the conclusions?
6. You are upset about the way your coworker, with whom you share a locked office,
runs out for coffee and leaves the door unlocked. Would you
A. not say anything and just hope she remembers to lock it, and make a point of locking
it when you step out?
B. address the issue with her promptly by saying you feel uneasy when you find the
7. You and your coworker, Sue, worked together and contributed equally on a project.
At a staff meeting, your boss publicly commends Sue for her work on the project.
Would you
A. not say anything knowing that in time you may get recognition?
B. immediately write a memo or talk to your boss to let her know that the project was
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Consider the cultural, social and foundational values listed below. Note how the two end columns might
be contradicting each other. Think about where you are on each continuum and place an “X” in the
appropriate box. (Remember – these are just for the sake of comparison and discussion)
Do you prefer:
An “absolute” truth
A “gentle” truth
Change and flexibility
Tradition and rules
Collectivism
Individualism
Competition
Collaboration
Confrontation
Harmony
Emphasis on task and product
Emphasis on process & relationship
Informal tone
Formal tone
Intuitive problem solving
Analytical, linear problem solving
Negotiable roles
Defined roles
Open relationships
Stated relationships
Predictability
Spontaneity
Rigid time adherence
Flexible time adherence
Specific communication
Vague Communication
Verbal communication
Non-verbal communication
1) Go back through the chart and underline those X’s that you feel are YOU.
2) Now, circle those X’s that you think are CULTURAL.
3) Be prepared to discuss in your teams what these values might mean if you meet, or are
4) Which values are your “Hot Button” issues? How do you deal with them?
This chart can tell you a lot about yourself and how you might respond to others. If you would like to
make this exercise even MORE interesting, fold this sheet in half, and have a “significant other” evaluate
you. Are there differences? What might they tell you?
Do I prefer:
An “absolute” truth
A “gentle” truth
Change and flexibility
Tradition and rules
Collectivism
Individualism
Competition
Collaboration
Confrontation
Harmony
Emphasis on task and product
Emphasis on process and
relationship
Informal tone
Formal tone
Intuitive problem solving
Analytical, linear problem solving
Negotiable roles
Defined roles
Open relationships
Stated relationships
Predictability
Spontaneity
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Rigid time adherence
Flexible time adherence
Specific communication
Vague Communication
Verbal communication
Non-verbal communication
1. Cultural Differences
Review the material in your text regarding one of the following cultural differences:
A. Masculine/Feminine
B. Avoidance of Uncertainty
2. Examples of Indirect (Low Context) Messages
Write an essay that addresses the following:
• In your own words, explain the differences between a direct versus an indirect message.
• What are the potential disadvantages and potential advantages of indirect messages?
• Identify two indirect messages you’ve heard this week (e.g. in conversations or on TV).
• Why do you think the speaker of each used an indirect message? Were these messages
effective in communicating the intentions of the speaker?
• What were the consequences of each indirect message? Were they constructive,
manipulative, polite, or sarcastic? Explain.
• Revise the indirect messages into direct messages that more effectively express the
3. Genderlects
Researchers have noted gender-related differences in communication styles, but please note that
gendered styles do not necessarily correspond to a person's biological sex. Also note that one
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• If you tend to use a masculine style of interaction, should you try to adjust your style
when you are talking with women in the home? How would you do this?
! If you tend to use a feminine style of interaction, should you adapt your style to use a
4. Barriers to Effective Intercultural Communication
Describe a situation in which you experienced cultural misunderstanding. Which barriers to
intercultural communication were present? How did you manage the situation? Provide specific
recommendations about how you could improve your intercultural communication in future
5. Theory X and Theory Y Organizations
Read about two management styles: Theory X and Theory Y at Net MBA Business
Management Center. http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcgregor/
In your own words, summarize the differences between Theory X and Theory Y. Based on your
own experience in organizations, provide an example of each style of management. If you had a
friend who practices the Theory X style of management, what advice would you give her or him?
Video Activities
1. Myths and Realities of Immigration
Objective: Demonstrate some facts about immigration to the U.S.
Procedure: Project the PBS “Myths and Realities” quiz on a screen so all students can see. The quiz
is available at http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/newamericans/quiz/q01.htm. Ask students to
2. Social Class of Native Americans and Related Assumptions
Objective: These videos help sensitize students to the challenges faced by Native Americans and
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“Hidden America: Children of the Plains”: Depicts a young man on Pine Ridge reservation who
has dreams of becoming U.S. President.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJapHc7B8Xs
“More Than That’”: This video was created by students on the Pine Ridge Reservation to show
that they are worth more than the assumptions commonly held about them.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhribaNXr7A
Students may wish to view “Pine Ridge Movie 2011” on their own.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-gd5vp0tcCI
Class Discussion: After showing the clips, discuss commonly held assumptions about Native
3. Cross-Cultural Communication between Members of Deaf Culture and Hearing Culture
Objective: You can use this video to help sensitize students to the challenges faced by members of
the deaf culture and to point out potential rewards of reaching out to communicate with someone
from a different co-culture.
4. Cultural Stereotypes in "The Cigar-Store Indian"
Objective: After watching and discussing this Seinfeld episode, students should understand several
concepts pertaining to cultural stereotypes.
Procedure: Show the Cigar-Store Indian Seinfeld clip, available at
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Jerry realizes that he is of Asian decent and is insulted that Jerry would assume that he should know
where the Chinese restaurant is.
Class Discussion: After viewing this episode of Seinfeld, class discussion could focus on the
numerous stereotypes that we have for different cultures and the way those stereotypes affect how we
interact with particular groups.
• What are the various groups that are stereotyped throughout this episode of Seinfeld?
• In what ways do stereotypes affect the way that we communicate within organizations?
• What message does this send to people who promote political correctness in our society?
• Have we become too politically correct in the way we deal with individuals from other
5. Discrimination in the Workplace
Objective: After viewing this clip from Philadelphia (1993, Columbia Tri Star Entertainment,
directed by Jonathan Demme), students should be able to identify a variety of discriminating factors
in organizational life and numerous ADA violations.
Procedure: Show the segment in which Andrew Becker (played by Tom Hanks) walks into Joe
Miller’s (played by Denzel Washington) law office. Andrew has been unlawfully terminated from his
law firm because he has AIDS. The clip ends 12 minutes later during a conversation in which the
partners of the law firm attempt to cover up their actions. These multiple scenes provide several
descriptive examples of ADA violations in addition to the basic stereotyping that occurs with a
variety of cultural groups.
Class Discussion: After viewing this clip, you can use the following questions to foster class
discussion.
• Which groups do you believe were stereotyped during this short clip?
• Has this law firm violated Mr. Becker’s rights? Why or why not?
• Which ADA regulation(s) has the law firm violated?
• Would you consider Mr. Becker’s illness a disability? Why or why not?
Additional Resources
Gudykunst, W. B. (2002). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural
communication. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
© 2019 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any
William N. Yeomans, best-selling author of 1000 things you never learned in business school, provides
insights into the changing (i.e., reengineered) U.S. corporate cultures that everyone from CEO to newest
hire would do well to know. He offers advice for surviving and even thriving in this new world. With
quizzes, humor, and graphs, Yeomans suggests practical skills for tough and uncertain times, including
methods for dealing with stress, management fads, unexpected change, listening, talking with your boss,
Shows a series of cross cultural situations, emphasizing that we are often unaware of our own
cultural customs; this can cause misunderstandings when we communicate across cultures.
Dialogue: Now You’re Talking. Set of 4 videos. CRM Learning.
This four-part set includes the following titles: Communicating in a Diverse World; Dialogue for
Cultural Understanding; Dialogue Between Genders; and Dialogue Among Generations. These
videos teach skills of dialogue and illustrate with practical examples.
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Web
1000 Ventures Corporate Training Site
http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cross-cultural_differences.html
This page offers a plethora of activities, quotes, articles, and learning games focused on
cultural differences.
American Deaf Culture
Dilbert Comic Archives
http://www.dilbert.com/strips/
For everyone’s favorite read on corporate culture, see an archive of Dilbert comics.
Disability Etiquette
http://www.dol.gov/odep/pubs/fact/comucate.htm
The United States Department of Labor has prepared this page to clarify appropriate etiquette for
