CHAPTER 18
SYMBOLIC CONVERGENCE THEORY
Outline
I. Central explanatory principle of SCT: sharing group fantasies creates symbolic
convergence.
A. Similar to Bales, Bormann and his team of colleagues observed that group
members often dramatized events happening outside the group, things that took
place at previous meetings, or what might possibly occur among them in the future.
B. When the drama was enhanced in this way, members developed a common group
consciousness and drew closer together.
II. Dramatizing messages: Creative interpretations of there-and-then.
A. According to SCT, conversations about things outside of what’s going on right now
can often serve the group well.
B. Dramatizing messages contains imaginative language that describes events
occurring at some other place and/or time.
C. The dramatizing message must paint a picture or bring to mind an image.
D. A vivid message is dramatizing if it either describes something outside the group or
portrays an event that has happened within the group in the past or might happen to
the group in the future.
E. Dramatizing messages are creative interpretations that help the speaker, and
sometimes the listener, make sense of a confusing situation or bring clarity to an
uncertain future.
III. Fantasy chain reactions: Unpredictable symbolic explosions.
A. Bormann uses fantasy for dramatizing messages that are enthusiastically embraced
by the whole group.
B. Most dramatizing messages don’t get that kind of reaction.
C. Some dramatizing messages cause a symbolic explosion in the form of a chain
reaction in which members join in until the entire group comes alive.
D. A fantasy chain occurs when there is a common response to the imagery.
E. Fantasy chains are hard to predict, but when they occur, they are hard to control and
a group will often converge around a fantasy theme.
IV. Fantasy themes: Content, motives, cues, types.
A. A fantasy theme is the content of the dramatizing message that sparks a fantasy
chain.
B. A fantasy theme is the basic unit of analysis for SCT.
C. Bormann suggested that group members’ meanings, emotions, motives, and actions
are apparent in their fantasy themes.
D. Many fantasy themes are indexed by a symbolic cue.
E. Clusters of related fantasy themes sometimes surface repeatedly in different groups
and are labeled with a fantasy type.
V. Symbolic convergence: Group consciousness and often cohesiveness.
A. Symbolic convergence results from sharing group fantasies.
1. Symbolic convergence is the way in which two or more private symbol worlds
incline toward each other, come more closely together, or even overlap.
2. Symbolic convergence causes group members to develop a unique group
consciousness.
B. Symbolic convergence usually, but not always, results in heightened group
cohesiveness.
VI. Rhetorical vision: A composite drama shared by a rhetorical community.
A. Fantasies that begin in small groups often are worked into public speeches, become
picked up by mass media and ‘spread out across larger publics.’
2. Rhetorical community is the wide ranging body of people who share a reality.
B. Fantasy theme analysis discovers fantasy themes and rhetorical visions that have
already been created.
C. Fantasy theme analysis is a specific type of rhetorical criticism that’s built on two
basic assumptions
1. People create their social reality.
3. Four features should be present in the shared fantasies: characters, plot lines,
scene, and sanctioning agent.
D. Examples of such rhetorical visions can be seen in McCabe’s work on pro-eating
disorders (also known as high-risk dieters) or the impact of the “Make America Great
Again” movement during the run-up to the 2016 US Presidential elections.
VII. Theory into practice: Advice to improve your college experience.
A. Bormann offers advice on how to use SCT as it applies to a group.
1. When the group begins to share a drama that in your opinion would contribute to
a healthy culture, you should pick up the drama and feed the chain.
3. To build cohesiveness, use personification to identify your group.
5. Even though a conscious rhetorical effort on your part can succeed in igniting a
chain reaction, remember that the fantasy may take an unexpected turn.
B. Most rhetorical visions embrace either a righteous vision, a social vision, or a
pragmatic vision.
VIII. Critique: Judging SCT as both a scientific and interpretive theory.
A. The theory’s basic hypothesis that sharing group fantasies creates symbolic
convergence is framed as a universal principle that holds for all people, in any
culture, at any time, in any communication context; it typifies the objective tradition.
B. But the methodology of determining fantasy themes, fantasy types, and rhetorical
visions is rhetorical criticism—a humanistic approach that’s undeniably interpretive.
C. SCT holds up well against both the criteria for an objective theory and an interpretive
theory.
D. Despite this success, SCT fails to meet two at least benchmarks of a good theory
(one objective benchmark and one interpretive benchmark).
1. SCT researchers adequately predict the benefits of convergence (cohesiveness)
2. Without the ability to forecast when a fantasy chain reaction will occur, SCT is
difficult to test and not as useful as group practitioners desire.
4. SCT vocabulary shows the theory’s pro-social bias, but ignores issues of power.
Key Names and Terms
Dramatizing message
Imaginative language by a group member describing past, future, or outside events;
creative interpretations of the there-and-then.
Fantasy chain
A symbolic explosion of lively agreement within a group in response to a member’s
dramatizing message.
Fantasy
Fantasy theme
Content of the fantasy that has chained out within a group; SCT’s basic unit of analysis.
Symbolic cue
An agreed-upon trigger that sets off group members to respond as they did when they
first shared the fantasy.
Fantasy type
A cluster of related fantasy themes; greater abstractions incorporating several concrete
fantasy themes that exist when shared meaning is taken for granted.
Symbolic convergence
Rhetorical vision
A composite drama that catches up large groups of people into a common symbolic
reality.
Fantasy theme analysis
Principal Changes
Kick-off Questions & Interaction Starters
• Think about a group that you’re a member of—a group of friends, a sports team, a work
group, or even your family. What are some “inside jokes” and references that you have
in your group, that outsiders wouldn’t understand?
• Which comes first—an inside joke or a cohesive group?
• Why do groups engage in off-task communication? When is such communication
helpful? When is it harmful?
• Why do some dramatized messages take off and the fantasy brings the group close
together, but others fall flat and are ignored?
Suggestions for Discussion
A fantasy by any other name
As the term “fantasy” has a number of denotative and connotative meanings in popular
usage, you will likely want to unpack exactly what Bormann means when he uses it throughout
his theory. A fruitful discussion might develop based on how his use of the term in the theory
is similar or different from how the word is used other contexts. Fantasy can be used to
describe a genre that emphasizes the supernatural, the mythical, or the substance of folklore.
Fantasy novels engage the imagination, but require a certain suspension of reality. In this way,
manager who can take the reins and make the decisions. Other students might bring up the
sexual or exotic referent of a fantasy as an unfulfilled, unrealized, and at times unlikely but
arousing story. In each use, fantasy is a departure from here and now and reflects a different
Does it always have to be shared by all?
In the chapter’s treatment of SCT, there is an emphasis on the group’s collective
identity but I am left wondering what becomes of groups that are less homogenous in their
identity. Even well-bonded groups may develop internal subgroups or alliances. Is it possible
to have a fantasy theme that isn’t known or held by all members of a group? I would argue
that perhaps symbolic convergence, the beneficial outcome of developing fantasy themes,
might be observed when group members believe they have inside jokes even if individuals
not hard to imagine that Greg, Peter, and Bobby had their own themes apart from Marcia, Jan,
and Cindy, to say nothing of child themes unknown to parents Mike and Carol. While this may
seem a silly example, it questions the assumption that in order to be a cohesive unit, all
member of an organization may be a part of every flow or type of communication. The same
might be said for symbolic convergence where everyone is in on some themes but not all
fantasies encompass the entire group.
Groupthink
In many circumstances, the positive benefits of a cohesive group outweigh potential
downsides. But at times, cohesiveness may be the very thing that brings about negative
consequences. Mentioned briefly in the overview of this section, you might want to revisit
Janis’ Groupthink. Previous editions of A First Look included a full chapter-length treatment (it
is available on the website www.afirstlook.com). Your students may have been exposed to it in
Social media as a source for fantasy themes and rhetorical visions on your college campus
Social media has become a frequent and potent vehicle for transmitting fantasy themes
and rhetorical visions. When Andrew teaches this chapter, he shares tweets from an ice storm
that paralyzed the Fort Worth area and TCU campus in late 2013, right when students were
(https://twitter.com/delisaGross/status/409883616852725760). This tweet chained out
with a number of other tweets, describing food packages as like receiving support from outside
the arena, and so forth. Andrew notes that, with that imaginative spin, complaining turned into
a fantasy. Examining social media posts on your campus might reveal fantasy themes among
your student body.
Sample Application Log
Emma
Before I came to school, I did an Outward-Bound type Wilderness trip with 10 other women. I
think Dickens must have gone on one of these trips because it was “The best of times and the
worst of times.” The only way I got through it was the great girls in my group. We had a blast.
We had many inside jokes, but I’m unsure if the one I have picked qualifies as a joke, but
whenever I get together with my girls, we still look back on it and laugh. Sabrina and I had to
sleep in soaking wet sleeping bags on a rainy night when it was fairly chilly outside. It was
think one of my socks is dry,” and then again the other person would respond, “positive.” This
attitude of finding positives in the most hopeless of situations really resonated with our group.
It made us laugh and lifted us up in the situation. It was our joke and a lifestyle.
Exercises and Activities
Fantasy themes in Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood
To increase your students’ grasp of fantasy theme analysis and symbolic convergence,
you might want to have them read an article using the technique and follow it up with an in–
class discussion. We recommend Stephen D. Perry and Amanda L. Roesch, “He’s in a New
Neighborhood Now: Religious Fantasy Themes About Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood,” Journal of
Media & Religion, Vol. 3, 2004, pp. 199– 219; or Ronald Bishop, “The World’s Nicest Grown–
Pulling back the veil
By the time I teach SCT, I’m ready to let my students in on a little secret: I’ve been
practicing this theory on them throughout the semester. From the beginning, I make an
intentional effort to watch for the emergence of fantasies in my class and I help them along
where I can. If the group is developing an inside joke, I’ll be sure to bring it up in class and fan
the flame. If someone has a nickname, I will use it frequently. When chaining begins, I let them
College (where I teach), communication theory is a rite of passage for Communication majors.
Students generally take it during their junior year, marking the transition into the harder, more
intense classes in the program after completing the fundamental and introductory classes.
Fellow students in comm theory will continue to be classmates later down the road. It is to
Drawing out your students’ fantasy themes
When Andrew teaches this theory, he starts the class by showing them an odd artifact
from his office—a bunny that’s designed to fit on a keychain. He explains that, when he was in
college, he was part of a highly cohesive group of friends and that the bunny belonged to one
of the women in that group. The men in the group would make a game of stealing the bunny
and torturing it in various ways (such as “drowning” it in a cup of water). The game was all in
fun, and trying to steal and protect the bunny became a fantasy theme. If you have a cherished
artifact that reflects a fantasy theme, you might likewise use it to prime your students with the
Feature film examples
A good film (and the book it is based upon) to illustrate SCT is The Sisterhood of the
Traveling Pants. Since the book series is popular with many adolescent girls (and Andrew
confesses that, as a member of a different demographic, he’s a big fan, too…), it is likely that
Another choice is Finding Neverland (2004), the story of J. M. Barrie who penned Peter
Pan. In the film, Barrie (portrayed by Johnny Depp) constructs his stories based on his
interactions with the imaginative Llewelyn Davies children, including Peter who is still deeply
grieved by his father’s death. Various scenes in the movie work well to illustrate the sharing of
The film/book The Life of Pi (2012) is an interesting example for fantasy themes. As Pi
tells his story to novelist Yann, he explains that his improbable companion and fellow survival
of the shipwreck that killed his family at age 16 was a tiger named Richard Parker. Together,
they persevere against a resourceful orangutan and a nasty hyena. As the story unfolds, he
describes his relationship to Richard Parker and their mutual dependence. After washing up
on the Mexican shore, he is questioned by investigators. An alternate narrative emerges where
the animals are replaced by humans, all of whom perished except Pi (who bears a striking
similarity to Richard Parker). Which is real and which is the fantasy? While you might not
devote time to watching the entire film, encouraging students to check it out might help them
Further Resources
For further discussion of Bormann’s work, see Sonja K. Foss, “Fantasy-Theme Criticism,” in
Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice, 5th ed, Waveland, Long Grove, IL, 2018, pp.
105-140.
For a provocative book-length application of Bormann’s notion of symbolic convergence to the
culture of a small group, see Moya Ann Ball, Vietnam-on-the-Potomac, Praeger Publishers, New
York, 1992.
Another excellent book-length application is Mara B. Adelman and Lawrence R. Frey, The
Fragile Community: Living Together with AIDS, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, 1997. (This
book also overlaps nicely with the bona fide group perspective presented in chapter 17 on the
functional perspective).
Theoretical considerations
For a critique of symbolic convergence theory, see Joshua Gunn, “Refiguring Fantasy:
Imagination and its Decline in U.S. Rhetorical Studies” Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 89,
2003, pp. 41-60.
• For a response to Gunn’s article, see Ernest G. Bormann, John F. Cragan, and Donald C.
Applied contexts of Bormann’s theory and fantasy theme analysis
Aubrie S. Adams, “Needs Met Through Role-Playing Games: A Fantasy Theme Analysis of
Dungeons & Dragons,” Kaleidoscope: A Graduate Journal of Qualitative
Communication Research, Vol. 12, 2013, pp. 69–86.
Dawn O. Braithwaite, Paul Schrodt, and Jody Koenig Kellas, “Symbolic Convergence Theory:
Communication, Dramatizing Messages, and Rhetorical Visions in Families,” in
Engaging Theories in Family Communication, Dawn O Braithwaite and Leslie A. Baxter
(eds.), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2006, pp. 146-161.
Margaret E. Duffy and Janis Teruggi Page, “Does Political Humor Matter? You Betcha! Comedy
TV’s Performance of the 2008 Vice Presidential Debate,” Journal of Popular
Culture, Vol. 46, 2013, pp. 545–565.
Amanda Hinnant and Elizabeth Hendrickson, “Rhetorical Visions of Health: A Fantasy-Theme
Analysis of Celebrity Articles,” Celebrity Studies, Vol. 3, 2012, 197-212.
Janis Teruggi Page, Margaret Duffy, Cynthia Frisby, and Gregory Perreault, “Richard Sherman
Speaks and Almost Breaks the Internet: Race, Media, and Football,” Howard Journal of
Communications, Vol. 27, 2016, pp. 270-289.
Brian Simmons, “A Fantasy Theme Analysis of Ex-Christians’ Online Deconversion
Cross-cultural applications of SCT
Verónica Calvillo, “Symbolic Convergence in Bracero Corrido Narratives,” Aztlan, Vol. 42, 2017,
pp. 99-126.
John L. Marambio and Chad Tew, “Clash in Paradise: A Fantasy Theme Analysis of A Day
Without a Mexican,” Journal of American Culture, Vol. 29, 2006, pp. 475-492.
Elaine McKewon, “Talking Points Ammo: The Use of Neoliberal Think Tank Fantasy Themes to
Delegitimise Scientific Knowledge of Climate Change in Australian Newspapers,”
Journalism Studies, Vol. 13, 2012, pp. 277-297.
Mei Wu and Wen-bo Zhu, “Rise of China or Western Conspiracy? A Fantasy Theme
Analysis,” China Media Research, Vol. 13, 2017, pp. 23–36.