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CHAPTER 10
LANGUAGE AND ORAL STYLE
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter addresses the critical role of language in the speech process, specifically
discussing effective oral style and how to use the kind of language that is instantly
intelligible to the ear so the audience receives the same meaning you intend.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction (p. 170): In written communication, effective style evolves through a
repetitious process of reading and revising. In a speech, effective style develops
I. Oral style: the manner in which one conveys messages through the spoken
word (p. 170).
A. The oral style is more formal than everyday talk. The degree of formality is
based on the rhetorical situation.
B. Four primary characteristics distinguish an effective oral style from an
effective written style.
1.
An effective oral style tends toward short sentences and familiar
language.
II. Speaking appropriately means using language that adapts to the needs,
interests, knowledge, and attitudes of your listeners and avoiding language that
A. Relevance. Listeners pay attention to and are motivated to listen to ideas
that have a personal impact.
B. Common ground: shared background, knowledge, attitudes.
2.
Ask rhetorical questions.
C. Linguistic sensitivity: choosing words that are respectful of others and
avoids potentially offensive language. You can enhance verbal immediacy
by avoiding:
1.
Generic language that uses words that apply only to one sex, race, or
other group as though they represent everyone.
2.
Nonparallel language, when terms are changed because of the sex,
race, or other group characteristics of the individual.
point.
3.
Offensive humor, such as dirty jokes and racist, sexist, or other “–ist”
remarks, may not be intended to be offensive, but if some listeners are
D. Cultural diversity. When you are a member of a cultural group that
operates differently from that of the majority of your audience, you need to
adapt your language to be appropriate for your audience.
E. Speaking accurately. Use accurate language, words that convey your
meaning precisely.
1.
Language is arbitrary. The words we use to represent things are
arbitrary symbols.
F. Using accurate language is crucial to effective speaking because it helps
you to be intelligible, clearly understood.
1.
Denotation: direct, explicit meaning given to a word by its language
community (the dictionary definition).
a.
Denotation reflects current and past practices in the language
2.
Connotation: positive, neutral, or negative feelings or evaluations
associated with a word.
3.
Dialect, a regional or ethnic variety of a language, can also affect
listener understanding of your message.
a.
Speech communities are smaller groups that speak a common
dialect.
IV. Speaking clearly decreases ambiguity and audience confusion when we speak.
(p. 179)
A. Use specific language: clarifying meaning by using precise words that
narrow what is understood from a general category to a particular item of
group within a category.
1.
Choosing specific language is easier when you have a large working
vocabulary.
2.
Use a more complex word only when you believe that it is the very
best word for a specific context.
B. Choose familiar terms.
1.
Avoid the use of jargon, slang, abbreviations, and acronyms unless
you define them clearly the first time they are used and using them is
central to your speech goal.
definitions assigned to words by a social group of subculture.
2.
Overusing and misusing abbreviations and acronyms can also hinder
clarity.
C. Provide details and examples: achieving clarity by adding details and
examples.
V. Speaking vividly is one effective way to maintain your audience’s interest and
help them remember what you say. Vivid language is full of life: vigorous, bright,
and intense (p. 181).
A. Use sensory language, language that appeals to the senses of seeing,
B. Use rhetorical figures, phrases that make striking comparisons between
things that are not obviously alike, and rhetorical structure of speech,
phrases that combine ideas in a particular way.
1.
A simile is a direct comparison of dissimilar things using the word like
2.
A metaphor is an implied comparison between two unlike things,
3.
An analogy is an extended metaphor. Analogies can be effective for
holding your speech together in a creative and vivid way.
4.
Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of
5.
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in a phrase or phrases.
6.
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like the things they
stand for, such as “buzz,” “hiss,” “crack,” and “plop.”
8.
Repetition is restating words, phrases, or sentences for emphasis.
LECTURE IDEAS
1.
Introduce students to the legal aspects of libel, slander, and hate speech, specifically
focusing on the consequences of misusing words, whether intentional or not. For
2.
Speaker credibility and audience adaptation are two major elements of effective
speaking. Find on InfoTrac Payne and Downing’s (2000, Journal of Technical
3.
Virgil Scudder’s (2004, Vital Speeches of the Day, 70.18) article, “The Importance of
Communication in a Global World,” explores the communicative barrier erected by
4.
Contact the library about “great” speeches of the past to show how American
language has changed from formal to informal, both in style and structure. Lead the
1.
Is fame an excuse for inappropriate speech acts? If so, is it ethical? If no, why does
it continue to be used as such? How often are such “celebrities” held accountable for
their word usage? Do accountability and consequence regulate a celebrity’s
inappropriate language?
3.
Reflect on experiences that you have had during private and/or public
communication transactions you believe were influenced by the cultural differences
of the participants. How would you characterize the event? What were the major
aspects of, or turning points in, the communication? Was it successful/
unsuccessful? Could knowledge of the differences between high and low context
speakers have helped your experience with others? How?
CLASS ACTIVITIES
Activity 10.1: The Ladder of Abstraction
This activity is designed to help students differentiate between specific language and
abstract language. Remind students that by their nature, abstract terms do not create
PHONE CALL DESCRIPTION
Most Abstract Most Abstract
“Hi, what are you doing?” A thing
Activity 10.2: Story Chain
Provide students with a list of random words (5–7). Using ALL of the words, the
students must create a short story (only a paragraph or so), complete with characters, a
scene, and some form of action. Encourage students to be as creative as possible.
When everyone is finished, have students deliver their short stories in front of the class.
Activity 10.3: Ready, Set … Draw
Have a student volunteer to describe a drawing. The drawing is of shapes; very abstract
(see below). The first speaker must describe the drawing to the audience, while the
audience attempts to recreate it. The audience cannot ask for clarification from the
Activity 10.4: Using Vivid Language
OPTION A
This activity exemplifies the importance of using specific, concrete, precise, and familiar
language. In order to view how each audience member attaches different meanings to
different abstract terms, have the class write the first word that comes to mind in
OPTION B
Have students choose a word from the list in Option A. Their goal is to create a vivid
picture in their classmates’ heads, of a time or place—related to their word—through the
Activity 10.5: Converting Jargon and Slang
Ask students to develop a list of 5–6 words that are examples of either jargon or slang.
Remind them to consider their jobs when they are trying to think about examples of
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS
accurate language: words that convey the meaning you intend
alliteration: repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words that are near one
common ground: the background, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and
philosophies shared by audience members and the speaker
connotation: the positive, neutral, or negative feelings we associate with a word
context: the position of a word in a sentence and its relationship to the words around it
denotation: dictionary definition
dialect: a unique form of a more general language spoken by a specific cultural or co–
cultural group
generic language: language that uses words that may apply only to one sex, race, or
linguistic sensitivity: using respectful language that doesn’t offend others
marking: the addition of sex, race, age, or other group designations to a description
metaphor: implied comparison between two unlike things without using like or as
nonparallel language: when terms are changed because of the sex, race, or other
group characteristics of the individual
onomatopoeia: words that sound like the things they stand for
simile: direct comparison of dissimilar things using like or as
slang: nonstandard vocabulary and definitions assigned to words by a social group or
co-culture
speaking appropriately: using language that is adapted to the needs, interests,
knowledge, and attitudes of the listener and avoiding language that alienates audience
members
specific language: words that clarify meaning by narrowing what is understood from a
general category to a particular item or group within that category
speech communities: group of people who speak a common dialect
TEST QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 10
Multiple Choice
1.
The goal of oral style is to .
a.
adapt your language to the purpose
b.
adapt your language to the audience
c.
adapt your language to the occasion
d.
all of the these
2.
is a word’s direct, explicit meaning given by its speech community.
a.
Denotation
b.
Demarcation
c.
Connotation
d.
Dialect
3.
All of the following are characteristics which distinguish oral style from written style
except:
a.
oral style tends toward short sentences and familiar language
b.
oral style features plural personal pronouns
c.
oral style employs descriptive words and phrases that appeal to the ear that
sustain listener interest and promote retention
d.
oral style incorporates linguistic sensitivity
4.
Verbal immediacy refers to .
a.
language that reduces the psychological distance between you and your
audience
b.
using language that is adapted to the needs, interests, knowledge, and attitudes
of the listener
c.
how one conveys messages through the spoken word
d.
the background, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and philosophies shared by
audience members and the speaker
5.
Saying, “The elderly gentlemen in the black suit and red tie entered the
neighborhood grocery” instead of “The man went to the store” is an example of a
speaker .
a.
using denotation
b.
speaking quickly
c.
using specific language
d.
speaking complexly
ANS: c SEE PAGE 179
6.
If a speaker appeals to the senses of seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and feeling,
then he/she is relying on .
a.
sensory language
b.
precise words
c.
rhetorical figures of speech
d.
vivid cues
7.
Unnecessary words interjected into sentences to fill moments of silence are known
as .
a.
concrete words
b.
precise words
c.
vocalized pauses
d.
vivid cues
8.
When terms are changed because of the sex, race, or other group characteristics of
the individual, the speaker is using:
a.
generic language
b.
specific language
c.
nonparallel language
d.
marking
ANS: c SEE PAGE 174
9.
When JFK used the phrase, “Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what
you can do for your country,” he was using .
a.
simile
b.
metaphor
c.
antithesis
d.
alliteration
10.
According to scholars, verbal communication rules and expectations .
a.
are learned during childhood
b.
are characterized by low and high context communication
c.
will vary from culture to culture
d.
are embedded in messages
11. “The engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle” is an example of .
a.
assonance
b.
hyperbole
c.
personification
d.
exaggeration
12.
The use of words that sound like the things they stand for such as “buzz” and “hiss”
are examples of .
a.
personification
b.
hyperbole
c.
onomatopoeia
d.
exaggeration
13.
Repeating words, phrases, or sentences for emphasis, as in MLK’s “I have a dream”
speech is called:
a.
alliteration
b.
repetition
c.
onomatopoeia
d.
analogy
ANS: b SEE PAGE 184
14. “Round and round the rugged rock the ragged rascal ran” is an example of a(n)
because of the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words that
are near one another.
a.
alliteration
b.
assonance
c.
repetition
d.
onomatopoeia
15.
Attributing human qualities to a concept or an inanimate object is known
as .
a.
alliteration
b.
assonance
c.
onomatopoeia
d.
personification
16.
Using language that is adapted to the needs, interests, knowledge, and attitudes of
your listeners and avoiding language that might alienate anyone is called
.
a.
emphasizing important information
b.
speaking vividly
c.
understanding meaning
d.
speaking appropriately
17.
While giving an anti-drug speech to a group of middle school students, a speaker
attempts to use what she believes is common teen slang. Rather than connecting
with the audience, the speaker appears insincere because she didn’t consider
.
a.
the formality of the occasion
b.
the appropriateness of jargon in a speech
c.
the level of sincerity expected by the audience
d.
all of the above
18.
The combination of background, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and
philosophies that you share with your audience is called:
a.
identifying similarities
b.
adapting to the occasion
c.
common ground
d.
completing the speech process
19.
What is problematic with a speaker begging the audience, “Guys, we can make a
difference in the fight against violence if we just organize our resources”?
a.
the use of generic language
b.
the use of vague language
c.
the suggestion of a problem
d.
begging for help
ANS: a SEE PAGE 173
20.
What are the two common forms of nonparallelism?
a.
marking and irrelevant association
b.
marking and generic language
c.
irrelevant association and generic language
d.
marking and linguistic sensitivity
True-False
21.
T F Speakers should use present tens because listeners are more likely to be
interested in information they perceive as timely.
22.
T F Although casual swearing is injected into regular conversation today, profanity
and vulgarity are considered appropriate language.
23.
T F Emphasizing someone’s relationship to another when that relationship is
irrelevant to the point is called irrelevant association.
24.
T F One of the best ways to improve when you are giving a speech in a second
language is to practice in front of friends who are native speakers.
ANS: T SEE PAGE 175
25.
T F A speaker is much more likely to speak vividly if he/she avoids
spending too much time considering the physical or psychological
meanings of the words used.
26.
T F Speakers should avoid using plural personal pronouns such as “we” in their
speeches.
27.
T F Antithesis involves combining contrasting ideas in the same sentence.
28.
T F Using accurate language means using words that convey the meaning you
intend.
29.
T F A dialect is a unique form of a more general language spoken by a specific
cultural or co-cultural group.
30.
T F Slang refers to nonstandard vocabulary and definitions assigned to words by
a social group or co-culture.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Cowan, G., Resendez, M., Marshall, E., & Quist, R. (2002, June). Hate speech
and Constitutional protection: Priming values of equality and freedom.
Journal of Social Issues, 58(2). pp. 247–264.