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Chapter 9 Christianity
Learning Objectives
9.1 Discuss the four gospels on which Christian beliefs about the life and teachings of
Jesus are founded.
9.3 Discuss the significance of Paul in the early Christian Church.
9.5 Identify the major reforms of the Protestant and Roman Catholic Reformations.
9.7 Summarize the central beliefs in contemporary Christianity.
9.9 Differentiate between evangelicalism and Spiritual-oriented movements.
Chapter Overview
The Christian Bible
The life and teachings of Jesus
Birth
Preparation
Ministry
Living Christianity: An Interview with David Vandiver
Teaching Story: The Good Samaritan
Resurrection and Ascension
The early Church
Books of the New Testament
From persecution to empire
Evolving organization and theology
Early monasticism
Church administration
East West division
Social chaos and the papacy
Reform efforts
Medieval mysticism
Religion in Practice: Russian Orthodox Kenoticism
The Protestant Reformation
The Roman Catholic Reformation
The Orthodox world today
Eastern Orthodox Church
Distinctive features of Orthodox spirituality
Central beliefs in contemporary Christianity
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Sacred practices
Worship services and sacraments
The liturgical year
Contemplative prayer
Veneration of Mary, saints and angels
Contemporary trends
Evangelicalism
Key Topics
Introduction
Christianity has the most followers of any religion in the world.
Based on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus, it has developed into
many different sects with differing interpretations of Jesus and his message.
Writings did not occur until several decades after his death, and since the sixth
9.1 The Christian Bible
Although there is very little historical evidence of Jesus, what evidence exists has
been extensively studied, such as events and writings during the time period Jesus
lived.
More is known about the time in which Jesus was born. He was born a Jew in
Israel, where Jews maintained an allegiance to one God despite foreign
influences.
Jews experienced some political freedom and matters of Torah interpretation were
hotly debated topics among the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.
The Jesus movement did not advocate for violence or political activism.
Christian churches use Bibles that contain the Hebrew Bible (known to
Christians as the Old Testament), the twenty-seven books of the New
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Testament, and in some cases the Apocrypha and Deuterocanonical books.
Given the textual complexity of the Bible, some Christians have attempted to
In eighteenth-century western Europe, critical historical study of the Bible
began. Many Christians now accept this approach, which uses the literary
method of addressing historical context, intended audience, and desired effect.
Christian belief about the life of Jesus is largely derived from biblical texts,
especially the first four books of the New Testament called the gospels (good
news).
o The gospels are based on oral transmission of stories and discourses.
o The language of the gospels was first in Greek and perhaps Aramaic, the
language that Jesus spoke.
o
9.2 The life and teachings of Jesus
provide much information about what happened before he began his ministry.
Birth
The Christian doctrine of incarnation teaches
Christian monks may have miscalculated in figuring time in relationship to
Christian tradition states that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, thereby fulfilling the
rabbinic interpretation of prophecies that the Messiah would be born in
Bethlehem. Some scholars believe that Jesus was actually born in or near
Nazareth.
Preparation
twelve, Jesus astounded the rabbis at the Temple in Jerusalem with his knowledge
of the Torah.
Ministry
gathering of the first disciples: the fisherman Simon (called Peter), Andrew
attachments behind and emphasized the importance of spiritual rather than
material wealth.
Jesus performed many miracles as part of his ministry, which Christians have
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spiritual point. For example, he spoke of parents and children, of masters and
servants, of sowing seeds, of fishing. But even though the subject matter was
familiar, the outcomes often contained paradoxes that turned conventional
Challenges to the authorities
A local leader appointed by the Romans feared that Jesus might be one of the
Zealots who were planning an uprising against the Romans.
As Jesus gathered more disciples, some members of other groups, such as the
Pharisees (shapers of rabbinic Judaism) and Sadducees (temple priests and upper
class), grew suspicious of him.
Although Jesus criticized the Pharisees, scholars have noted many similarities
between them and the beliefs of early Christians.
Jesus is also said to have challenged the commercial enterprises at the Temple of
Jerusalem.
Jesus taught that John the Baptist was Elijah come again. John the Baptist had
been killed by the authorities, and Jesus predicted that he too would meet a
similar fate.
Foreshadowing the Crucifixion, he said he would offer his own flesh and blood
for humanity, marking a new covenant in which his blood would be shed for the
forgiveness of sins.
Crucifixion
The anti-
power, who were wary of incipient revolts.
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He warned his disciples that the end was near, and at a Passover meal he gave
instructions for a ceremony using bread and wine to continue communion with
him.
He predicted that one of his disciples would betray him and, indeed, Judas had
already done so.
Resurrection and Ascension
for burial, but they found the tomb empty.
Angels appeared and informed them that Jesus had risen from the dead.
The women brought male disciples, who also witnessed the empty tomb.
Christ then appeared to a number of his disciples to dispel their doubts about the
Resurrection; accounts of these appearances differ in the gospels.
Some scholars have argued that there is some truth to the resurrection story
9.3 The early Church
religion of the Roman Empire late in 380 CE.
Yet, at the outset of the movement, Christians represented a tiny persecuted band
of dissidents within Judaism.
From persecution to empire
New Testament books following the gospels (Acts, presumably written by the
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Christianity.
Acts describes the Pentecost, a meeting at which disciples were filled with the
spirit of God and spoke in different languages.
Jews and Christians debated the importance given to Jesus, and there was also
debate about whether the Christian message was universal. Paul sought to
convert Gentiles as well as Jews; he argued that non-Jewish males should not be
required to practice circumcision.
traditional law.
Even Abraham was justified (accepted by God in spite of sin) due to his faith in
God, not his circumcision.
Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, but many
Christians were persecuted for rejecting the beliefs and practices of the Empire.
Martyrdom and asceticism were embraced.
Evolving organization and theology
During its phenomenal growth from persecuted sect to state religion throughout
much of the ancient world, Christianity was developing organizationally and
theologically.
By the end of the first century CE, bureaucracies carried on the rites of the Church
and attempted to define mainstream Christianity and to denigrate trends that the
mainstream judged to be heretical or false.
Movements such as Gnosticism (mystical perception of knowledge) were deemed
heretical, and Gnostic gospels were not included in the New Testament canon.
The early h
shifting to the indefinite future.
Belief in the Second Coming of Christ remains an article of faith for some
Christians.
According to the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, the transcendent God the Father
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professions of faith, used in religious instruction and baptism.
o Creeds defined who Jesus was and his relationship to God.
Early monasticism
Through the fourth century CE, the Christian monasticism of the desert
fathers and mothers (called ammas) was largely unregulated; soon,
however, group monasteries were organized with rules and supervision.
9.4 Church administration
There were eastern (imperial seat in Constantinople) and western sections
(imperial seat at Rome) of the Roman Empire.
Language, culture, and religious differences began to divide the two sections.
In the West, religious power was increasingly concentrated in the Roman pope,
East-West division
doctrinal dispute over whether the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father (East) or
the Father and the Son (West).
The disagreements culminated in the 1054 mutual excommunication of the
eastern and western factions.
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Social chaos and the papacy
In the Western Church, centralization of power under the pope became a major
unifying element in the Europe of the Middle Ages.
Church and state were at times locked in a mutual power struggle for dominance,
with popes alternately supporting, dominating, and being deposed by secular
rulers.
9.5 Reform efforts
Christian spirituality thrived in universities and monastic orders. Some monks
and nuns led cloistered lives, while some orders such as the Dominicans
Medieval mysticism
Mysticism thrived during the Middle Ages and renewed the spiritual heart of the
Church.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098 1179), German abbess and founder of two
monasteries on the Rhine, experienced visions and wrote treatises on medical and
scientific matters as well as poetry.
The Protestant Reformation
In the late fifteenth century, some Christians began to compare early Christianity
with the Roman Catholic Church version of Christianity.
interpreted to mean that God offers salvation through Jesus to sinners in spite of
ce and was
received through repentant faith, rather than the good works and created graces
prescribed by the Church.
In 1517, Luther brought forth his ideas for discussion by posting his theses on
the door of the church. In 1520, he was excommunicated. Some German princes
supported Luther.
communion.
The work of such reformers attracted other Christians; it led to the creation
of a new branch of Christianity known as Protestantism. Because it
In the sixteenth century, John Calvin built on the theory of salvation by faith
are of no eternal significance.
o Humans could recognize three signs of being saved: profession of faith,
maintains a strong emphasis on liturgy and sacraments.
European political entities chose specific forms of Christianity as their
official religions as the Protestant Reformation spread. Spain, France, and
Italy remained Roman Catholic.
Two major Reformed Churches that developed from Calvinism were the
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Friends), date from the seventeenth-century followers of George Fox.
Other Protestant groups originated in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in the
United States. Evangelical churches emphasize salvation by personal faith in
Jesus, personal conversion, the centrality of the Bible, and preaching over ritual.
Seventh Day Adventists believe the Second Coming of Christ is near and regard
the Bible as a guide to practice in anticipat
Protestantism is quite diverse but most denominations share the belief that
individual conscience and reason are guides to understanding scripture and that
The Roman Catholic Reformation
Catholic Church, leading to the Catholic Reformation, which brought about moral
reform among the clergy, tightening of Church administration, and affirmation of
the pope as earthly vicar of God and Jesus.
The Council of Trent emphasized that its positions were authoritative truths or
The missionary enterprise
As European countries began to spread, they converted the conquered people to
Christianity.
Missionaries were involved in the suppression of the indigenous in Latin America
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Liberal trends
The Enlightenment emphasis on reason challenged biblical miracles and
revelations.
New scientific discoveries challenged traditional accounts of creation.
Some tried to reconcile faith and modern knowledge, while others focused on the
The Second Vatican Council
A nineteenth-century council of Roman Catholic hierarchs had reasserted the
doctrine of papal infallibility: when the pope speaks from the seat of his
authority (ex cathedra) on matters of faith and morals, he cannot err.
In 1962, Pope John XXIII convened the Second Vatican Counci
Changes arising from this council included translating the liturgy of the mass
into local languages from Latin, incorporating more music into services, and
9.6 The Orthodox World Today
After the Church split, the Eastern Orthodox Church spread through Slavic and
From the tenth century onward, Russian Orthodox Christianity was linked to
There are now fifteen self-governing Eastern Orthodox churches worldwide, each
with its own leader, known as patriarch, metropolitan, or archbishop.
The majority of Orthodox Christians now live in Russia, the Balkan states, and
Eastern Europe.
Autocephalous (independent) Churches include the large Church of Russia, which
the sixth century.
The Patriarchate of Alexandria is based in Egypt and extends through all of
Africa.
The Patriarchate of Antioch consists of Orthodox Christian Arabs in Syria and
Distinctive features of Orthodox spirituality
The Orthodox Churches have generally tried to preserve the pattern of early
Christianity. Synods councils of officials decide on any changes that affect
all churches. While women may play roles in local church affairs, they may not
be ordained as priests or serve in hierarchical capacities.
9.7 Central beliefs in contemporary Christianity
Most Christians would probably agree on a few basic motifs: the divine Sonship
9.8 Sacred practices
The primary practice of Christians is imitation of the model by which Jesus led
his life.
In an attempt to be more like Jesus, spiritual practices have been developed, but
these practices vary in different Christian traditions.
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Worship services and sacraments
Churches are the typical location of Christian worship. Public worship or liturgy
usually follows a set pattern.
The central rites of Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy are the seven sacraments
confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme
Protestant churches accept only baptism and the Eucharist as sacraments and have
a less mystical understanding of their significance.
For most forms of Christianity the central sacrament is the Eucharist. Bread and
wine are received as the body and blood of Christ (interpretations of what
precisely this involves vary), a communion with Christ.
Traditionally, Catholics were taught to confess their sins to a priest before
taking communion in the sacrament of penance or reconciliation. Orthodox
Christians are to spend several days in contrition and fasting before taking
communion.
Church services for most Christians involve readings from the Old and New
Testaments and the singing of hymns and may also include a creedal statement
and money offerings. The priest or minister may give a sermon or homily.
A recent innovation in both Catholic and Protestant churches is
The liturgical year
Christmas
Epiphany
Magi, his acknowledgement as Messiah and Son of God when baptized by John
the Baptist, and his turning water into wine. Epiphany was more important than
Advent is the month proceeding Christmas, meant as a time of joyous
anticipation, but in industrialized countries, it is more likely to be marked by
marketing and buying gifts.
Easter is the most religiously significant event in the Christian liturgical year. It
(celebrated on different days by the Eastern and Western Churches).
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o It is preceded by Lent, forty days of repentance and fasting, which in the West
begin with Ash Wednesday.
Some Christians celebrate the bodily Ascension of Jesus into heaven either on
Contemplative prayer
The pace of modern life has led some Christians to seek quiet reflection.
Some, such as Thomas Merton, turned to Asian contemplative traditions, not
realizing that Christianity had its own mystical traditions.
Veneration of saints and angels
Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican Christians honor their spiritual
heroes as saints.
These are men and women who are recognized as so holy that the divine life
of Christ is particularly evident in them.
Most venerated of all the saints is Mary, the mother of Jesus.
The story of the Annunciation describes an angel appearing to Mary to tell
her she will have a child conceived by the Holy Spirit.
Mary may be called the New Eve, who submitted to God, unlike the first
Eve who disobeyed God. Orthodox and Catholic tradition refer to Mary as
Mother of God. Roman Catholicism teaches that Mary herself was
conceived without original sin (Immaculate Conception), that she remained
a virgin, and that she ascended bodily to heaven after her physical death.
Mary has been known to appear to believers around the world, whether in
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9.9 Contemporary trends
Christianity is losing ground in some areas and growing in others.
The fall of Communism in the former Soviet Union and its satellites have
brought a reopening and renovation of many churches and a renewed
spirituality among the people.
Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, the Archbishop of Constantinople and
significant role in improving dialogue between Roman Catholics and
Protestants.
Since the Egyptian Revolution in Egypt in 2011, Coptic Christians have been
Pope John Paul II strengthened the right wing of the Church.
o
treatment of Jews and other religions.
o In 2003, Pope John Paul II publicly opposed the American-led attack on
Iraq.
Pope Benedict XVI, elected in 2005, was known for his defense of traditional
Catholic doctrines. In 2013, Pope Benedict became the first pope in almost 600
years to resign due to health issues.
The election of a Jesuit from Argentina was a surprise, and Pope Francis has
quickly gained popularity, urging the Church to return to its mission of protection
of the weakest in society.
Evangelicalism
Its four defining characteristics are Biblicism, crucicentrism, conversionism, and
activism.
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Preaching the gospel and converting people is evangelizing.
Fundamentalists were against the attempt to reconcile science and religion and
During the twentieth century, the fundamentalist movement in the United States
developed into a powerful political and social force that rejects secular
education, government, and social programs.
Many evangelicals and other conservative Protestants await the rapture, when
Spirit-oriented movements
Sharing some characteristics with the evangelicals, there is a rising emphasis on
the charismatic experience, or divinely inspired powers.
Charismatics may include Protestant Pentecostal church members, mainline
Protestant denomination members, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox Christians.
Charismatics focus on the Holy Spirit and divinely inspired powers, bringing
about emotional spiritual experiences such as speaking in tongues, spontaneous
healing, and miracles.
There is no typical pattern to the charismatic experiences.
Pentecostalism seeks a second experience of the Holy Spirit after the initial
experience of salvation through belief in Jesus as Savior.
The great reversal
Although contemporary Christianity was mainly shaped in Europe and its North
American colonies, its greatest numerical strength is now in Africa, Latin
America, and parts of Asia.
Christianity today is about 65 percent non-Western, with many indigenous,
independent churches in China and Africa.
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previously not Christian.
Many newer Christian churches reject earlier Western missionary efforts to
divorce them from their earlier traditions. African Instituted Church theologians,
Congregations outside the West may now send missionaries to the West in a
reversal of earlier patterns. Europe is becoming increasingly secular.
Christian faith and justice
Although many Christians make a distinction between the sacred and the secular,
some have involved themselves deeply with social issues as an expression of their
Christian faith.
Feminist Christianity
Many scholars are trying to recover the history of women in the early Christian
today.
Biblical women are being reappraised as role models.
Feminist theologians also explore the concept of God, arguing that God is not just
a male father, but may also be modeled as mother and divine wisdom.
Creation-centered Christianity
Creation-centered Christianity challenges the traditional Judeo-Christian notion
that humans were given dominion over the earth and looks for new ways of
Ecumenical movement
Ecumenism seeks to unify Christians. Both the Roman Catholic Church and the
Orthodox Church consider themselves to be the one Church of Christ and
therefore do not share communion with members of other Christian churches.
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Many feel that the consensus model for decision making is closer to the original
spirit of Christianity.
Key Terms
apocalypse ecumenism New Testament
Ascension Eucharist Old Testament
baptism fundamentalism original sin
Christ Gentile parable
Review Questions
1. What are the major events in the life of Jesus as described in the gospels?
3. Describe the major figures and issues in early Christian Church, including Paul and
Constantine, the Trinity, the Nicene Creed, Christology, Gnosticism, and monasticism.
Discussion Questions
2. What factors influenced the development of Christianity? Consider Judaism,
3. How are contemporary Christians responding to issues such as globalization, religious
leadership and authority, liberation theology, the role of women, ecological crisis, and
charismatic experience?
Class Assignments/Activities
1. Ask students to use a local newspaper, phone book, or website to identify the Christian
2. Ask students to research an area of controversy within contemporary Christianity, such
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3. Ask students to visit both a Roman Catholic Church and an Eastern Orthodox Church
Recommended Films
From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians, Frontline/Invision Productions Ltd., 1998.
240 minutes in 4 segments. Explores the life of Jesus and the movement he started,
drawing on new and sometimes controversial historical evidence and interviews with
Protestant Spirit USA
Portrays Protestant Christianity in Indianapolis, Indiana, focusing on different forms of
belief and practice.
Rise Up and Walk: The Life and Witness of the African Indigenous Churches, National
Film Network, 1981. 54 minutes. Explores the origins, beliefs, and practices of a variety
Additional Class Discussion/Essay Questions
1. What is known about the historical life of Jesus? How is this similar to and different
from the Jesus appearing throughout the New Testament, especially the gospels?
2. Explain the issues that led to the split between the Roman Catholic Church and the
Eastern Orthodox Church.