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Chapter 7 Shinto
Learning Objectives
7.2 Outline the elements of Confucianism and Buddhism that have been blended with
Shinto.
7.5 Summarize the main aspects of contemporary Shinto.
Chapter Overview
Kinship with nature
Relationships with the kami
Teaching Story: Amaterasu comes Out of the Cave
Shrines
Living Shinto: An Interview with a Japanese Businessman
Ceremonies and festivals
Purification
Key Points
Introduction
Teaching Note: The goals of the chapter are (1) to describe the origins and major
spirits
in nature, so named to distinguish such practices from Buddhism and other
7.1
Shinto does not have a known founder, nor does it have an orthodox sacred
scripture, or an explicit ethical code.
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Its historical origins appear to lie in the practice of individual clans worshiping a
deity as their ancestor, along with worship of other unseen beings and natural
forces.
It was not identified with a specific name until Buddhism spread to Japan during
Kinship with nature
Natural beauty and symmetry have always been important in Japan.
o People organized their lives around the seasons.
Relationships with the kami
The most ancient forms of spirituality in Japan were probably linked to the
spirits perceived in the natural world the kami.
The sacred is understood to be both immanent and transcendent; the divine
The Amatsu kami created Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, and also created
the ancestors of the Japanese.
The natural world is in kinship with the spiritual creation of the kami.
It is difficult to transl
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Shrines
There are some one hundred thousand public shrines in Japan honoring the kami.
Some shrines are dedicated to kami who protect the local area or have special
responsibilities, such as healing or protecting crops.
The greatest number of shrines is dedicated to Inari, the god of rice, whose
messengers are foxes.
Kamikaze, meaning divine wind, became an aspect of Amaterasu and, later, a
Ceremonies and festivals
At shrines, complex ceremonies are required to encourage the spirit of the kami
to take up residence.
Training for the priesthood is lengthy; the role of priest is traditionally
hereditary, open to both men and women.
o Shinto priests may marry and are not expected to undertake ascetic practices
Pilgrims who visit shrines may take away with them a spiritual memento, such as
a paper symbol of the shrine.
Followers of Shinto may also have a shrine in the home, where a mirror
Shinto includes both seasonal and life cycle festivals.
o Life cycle rituals include ceremonies during pregnancy, thirty-two or thirty-
o
life.
Purification
A third distinguishing feature of Shinto is purification practices. Impurity or
misfortune, called tsumi or kegare, may come about through defilement of
corpses, menstruation, hostility toward others or the environment, or natural
7.2 Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian influences
Today, Shinto peacefully and fruitfully coexists with Buddhism, Daoism, and
Confucianism.
o Confucian ideals became embedded in Japanese ethics, especially with regard
to human relationships.
o Buddhism became an important part of the religious landscape in Japan.
7.3 State Shinto
The nineteenth-century Meiji regime promoted Shinto as the spiritual
foundation of the government and reiterated the long-standing belief that the
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7.4
In rural Japan, there was a long-standing tradition of women acting as shamans,
falling into trances during which the kami would speak through them.
7.5 Shinto today
Shinto ways generally remain indigenous to Japan, though they are found in
Hawaii and Brazil, where Japanese have settled.
It is still common for the Japanese to visit Shinto shrines, especially at New Year.
Shinto still serves as the basis for seasonal holidays.
Modern life, with its industrialization, urbanization, and environmental problems,
Yet, today, Shinto shrines remain active and are visited by millions of people
both believers and tourists annually.
Rapid and extreme urbanization, industrial pollution, and despoliation of the
natural environment, including the nuclear disaster after the earthquake and
tsunami of 2011, have caused people to become more concerned about the
environment.
o
Sumo wrestling is imbued with Shinto rituals, performed for the abundant
harvests and as a homage to kami.
A controversy persists over the Yasukuni Shrine, which was dedicated during the
Meiji Restoration to those who had given their lives for the sake of Japan.
o The controversy stems from the 1978 inclusion of the names of fourteen Class
Key Terms
kami misogi tsumi
kannagara oharai
Review Questions
1. Explain the Shinto approach to nature and environmental concerns, addressing kami,
mountains, waterfalls, and kannagara.
3. Explain the purpose of personal and collective purification in Shinåto, addressing the
Discussion Questions
1. What elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Chinese folk religion may be found
within Japanese religious practice?
2. Why do you think Shinto has been so closely tied to Japanese nationalism? Discuss
3. Compare and contrast the Shinto view of nature with that of indigenous sacred ways
(Chapter 2).
Class Activities/Assignments
1. If there is an art museum in your area with a collection of Japanese art, encourage
2. Have students research whether there are any Shinto shrines nearby. Where is the
Recommended Films
Buddha in the Land of the Kami (7th 12th Centuries), Films for the Humanities and
Sciences, 1989. 54 minutes. Explores the relationship between Buddhism and Shinto;
rather slow-paced; excerpts might be useful.
Additional Class Discussion/Essay Questions
1. Which of the general characteristics of an indigenous religion described in Chapter 2
are evident in Shinto? What specific forms do they take?
2. How is the Shinto belief in tsumi similar to, and different from, the understandings of
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Chapter 7A Zoroastrianism
Learning Objectives
7A.1 Describe the life and teachings of Zarathushtra.
7A.2 Identify the key texts of Zoroastrianism.
7A.3 Summarize the main Zoroastrian rituals.
7A.4 Discuss Zoroastrianism in the modern world.
Chapter Overview
Spread of Zoroastrian beliefs
Zoroastrian teachings
The primacy of Ahura Mazda
Key Points
Introduction
Teaching Note: This brief insert may be used as a transition between the previous
the Western religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Zoroastrianism originated in ancient Iran and for some of its history may have
7A.1
This native religion of Iran was named after one of its reformers, Zarathushtra
(Greek: Zoroaster); in Iran, it is known as Mazdayasna.
sometime between 1800 and 1500 BCE in Central Asia.
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7A.2 Spread of Zoroastrian beliefs
ideas, but it may be linked to
the priestly specialists from western Iran known as the Magi.
Under the Persian Empire established in the mid-sixth century BCE, Zoroastrian
beliefs such as the belief that there is an evil aspect in life, an immortal soul,
reward or punishment in an afterlife, and bodily resurrection at the apocalyptic
7A.3 Zoroastrian teachings
Despite uncer
ideas can be described:
o The primacy of Ahura Mazda
Today there is an uncertainty about what he taught, but enough is known about
The primacy of Ahura Mazda
Zarathushtra is considered the first of the monotheists of the Western
traditions.
Though Ahura Mazda is the one Eternal Being, Zarathushtra also described
six divine powers, called Holy Immortals or Ameshta Spenta, as radiating
from the godhead: The Good Mind, Righteousness, Absolute Power,
Devotion, Perfection, and Immortality.
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The choice between good and evil
Zarathustra wrestled with the problem of evil.
There is scholarly debate over whether Zarathustra taught a cosmic
dualism or whether this is a later development in the religious system.
In any case, Ahura Mazda is believed to be the supreme good creator, who
creates only perfection and purity.
o Yet, there are two opposing powers: Spenta Mainyu (good) and
Heaven, hell, and resurrection
In Zoroastrian belief, each person is judged at death according to the total
goodness or evilness of our thoughts, deeds, and words.
Religious practices
Rituals are a major part of Zoroastrian practice, especially purification rituals
involving water or fire.
Other rituals focus on purification.
7A.4 Zoroastrianism today
There are very few practitioners of Zoroastrianism today, which threatens
this ancient religion.
o For example, a Zoroastrian holy flame has been burning continuously
for 1,500 years in Iran, but there are not enough devotees to keep the
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Key Terms
Avesta Gathas Parsis
Review Questions
1. Where did Zoroastrianism emerge from, and how was this religion eventually
accepted?
2. What is the status of Zoroastrianism today? How have the Zoroastrians from India
tried to increase their numbers?
Class Discussion/Essay Questions
1. What aspects of Zoroastrian belief and practice seem similar to Hinduism? Give
2. Do any Zoroastrian beliefs seem familiar to you in the context of your knowledge of
Judaism and Christianity? If so, which ones?
Class Activities/Assignments
1. Students interested in learning more about the Zoroastrianism faith may wish to read
2. Ask students whether they know of any well-known Zoroastrians in the West. Two
possibilities are conductor Zubin Mehta and the late Freddy Mercury (birth name Farrokh
Recommended Films
In the Footsteps of our Father, Tenaz H. Dubash, 2000. 60 minutes. A documentary
about thirty-four Americans who journey to Iran to trace their roots, history, and
Zoroastrian beliefs.