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Chapter 3 Hinduism
Learning Objectives
3.1 Explain the origins and significance of the Vedas.
3.3 Compare and contrast Shaktas, Shaivas, and Vaishnavas.
3.5 Outline the main public and private rituals in Hinduism.
3.6 Discuss the issue of defining Hindu identity in modern India.
Chapter Overview
Philosophical and metaphysical origins
The Indus Valley civilization
The Vedas
Theistic foundations
The epics and Puranas
Teaching Story: Hanuman, the Monkey Chief
Devotional traditions
Shaktas
Major philosophical systems
Samkhya
Advaita Vedanta
Yoga
This Hindu way of life
Castes, duties, and life goals
Religion in Public Life: Anna Hazare
Religion in Practice: Sacred Thread Ceremony
Life stages
The guru
Rituals
Living Hinduism: An Interview with Somjit Dasgupta
Fasts, prayers, and auspicious designs
Hinduism in the modern world
Modern movements
Religion in Practice: Dharmic Principles: The Swadhyaya Movement
Global Hinduism
Hindu identity
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Key Points
Introduction
Hinduism is the oldest global religion, with the Vedas (the religious texts) being
first carried orally sometime between 8000 6000 BCE.
Considerable debate persists about the earliest origins of Hinduism.
Hinduism encompasses a wide array of beliefs and practices, as well as a
substantial technical vocabulary, and as a result some students may find it
overwhelming.
Spiritual expressions of Hinduism range from extreme asceticism to extreme
sensuality.
2. Major philosophical systems
4. The Hindu way of life
5. Hinduism in the modern world
Teaching Note: This chapter, therefore, focuses on the main facets of the
advance that in coming to understand this religion they need to become familiar
with an array of terms. Though numerous, these terms are extremely important for
Hinduism has extreme variations, and these reflect the great age of the faith
tradition.
3.1 Philosophical and metaphysical origins
The Brahmanic tradition may be traced back to the Vedic age.
Metaphysical beliefs in the Vedas were divided into various schools of thought by
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philosophers and sages.
The Indus Valley civilization
The history and precise dating of this period is controversial.
and developed the Vedas (an important base for the later development of
Hinduism), but recent scholarship has questioned that.
o Much of the controversy rests on interpretation of archeological data and is
complicated by the fact that the script used by the Indus Valley people has
The relationship of the Vedas to the Indus Valley is also in question in modern
scholarship.
The Vedas
The Vedas are a collection of sacred hymns; the names of the different portions
of the collection may be difficult for students.
The Rig Veda is the first and oldest of four collections that constitute the Vedas.
It praises and asks blessings from the devas or deities.
The other three collections contain hymns and sacred sounds for offerings to the
devas.
Other ancient shruti texts include the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and
Upanishads.
The Upanishads represent mystical insights and focus on inward self-exploration
as means of knowing Brahman, the all-pervading reality.
Teaching Note: Students may be confused by different forms of the word
The rishis who appear in the Upanishads taught that Brahman, the all-pervading
reality, could be known from within as the subtle self or soul, atman.
The Upanishads relate key doctrines of Hinduism, such as the concept of a cycle
3.2 Theistic foundations
The worship of major deities persisted during the Vedic period and was later
written down.
Eventually bhakti, the intensive devotion to a personal manifestation of Brahman,
became the heart of Hinduism.
The epics and Puranas
Arising after 500 CE, the epics and Puranas illustrate the trend toward personal
love for a deity.
The two major epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
o The epics illustrate aspects of the theory of yugas or ages, according to which
The Ramayana, compiled sometime between 400 BCE and 200 CE, depicts the
duties (i.e., dharma) involved in various kinds of relationships through its
The vast Mahabharata, composed perhaps sometime between 4000 BCE and
400 CE, includes one of the best-known texts of Hinduism, the Bhagavad-Gita,
3.3 Devotional traditions
In ancient times, rituals involving fire sacrifice and recitation of the Vedas were
600 CE.
o It was open to both women and shudras (manual laborers and artisans), who
had been excluded from direct participation in Vedic ritual.
Many Hindus speak of an ultimate, genderless form of the deity who
encompasses all the functions creation, preservation, and destruction of the
specific deities.
Shaktas
The Shakta tradition may or may not include the Vedic path.
The power of the goddess is known as shakti. This feminine power may
manifest in many forms, from village goddesses associated with a particular
locale to the great goddesses of upper-class mythology.
Shaivas
The god Shiva may be represented in a variety of forms, as the lord of yoga, as
husband of the goddess Parvati, and to some Shaivas as the attributeless
supreme deity.
Shiva and his shakti may be portrayed together as an androgynous figure and
Vaishnavas
The god Vishnu has been worshiped since Vedic times.
o He is understood to have appeared in a series of earthly incarnations, some in
animal form.
o Two of his most well-known incarnations are the gods Rama and Krishna
(though Krishna may be revered without reference to Vishnu).
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3.4 Major philosophical systems
The various philosophical systems of the Brahmanic Hindu tradition share three
features in common:
2. All hold ethics to be central to orderly social and attribute suffering to karma
(that can be corrected through more ethical behavior).
Important philosophical systems include the dualistic views of Samkhya (which
Samkhya
The Samkhya system is thought to be the oldest in India.
The founder is said to be semi-mythical sage, Kapila.
The principles of Samkhya appear in Jainism and Buddhism from the sixth
century BCE.
This system holds that the material universe consists of three essential qualities,
the interaction of which is a key factor in some Indian systems of diet and
medicine:
o Sattva: fine, illuminated, balanced
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita (nondualist) Vedanta is generally monistic, positing a single reality, and
is based on the Upanishads.
Yoga
From ancient times, people of India have practiced spiritual disciplines designed
to clear the mind and support a state of serene, detached awareness.
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(cosmically symbolic linear image) or the OM symbol.
Some forms of yoga focus on controlling the flow of energy through the chakras
Sages distinguished four basic types of people and developed yogic practices
suitable for each type so that each person can achieve the desired union with the
Self.
o Raja yoga, the path of mental concentration, incorporates practices known as
3.5 The Hindu way of life
Hinduism has no single founder, devotional tradition, or philosophy that defines
Aspects of Hindu spirituality considered here include rituals; castes and social
Castes, duties, and life goals
Life in India continues to be shaped to a considerable extent by hierarchies and
inequalities derived from Jati (thousands of groups denoted by shared
The Varna caste system goes back to the Vedic age.
o The Vedas described four [male] occupational groups: Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras.
o The Untouchables (Dalits) lay outside the system. Over time, caste
The Code of Manu outlines rules for social life.
Mahatma Gandhi fought against the social injustices of the caste system,
particularly discrimination against untouchables, whom he christened harijans or
Life stages
In the past, spiritual training was usually available only to upper-caste males but
not women and Shudras.
Traditionally, Brahmin males passed through four stages: student, householder,
meditation/study, renunciation (becoming a sannyasin).
For women, the ideal stages are daughter, wife, and if her husband dies before
The guru
A guru is a revered spiritual teacher and may serve as a sort of spiritual parent or
spiritual guide.
Nearly every practicing Hindu places him– or herself at the feet of a guru and is
Rituals
Ritual is central to Hinduism, and there are sixteen rites prescribed to purify and
sanctify a person in his or her journey through life.
Public ritual, the puja, is usually performed by Brahmin priests called pujaris.
Important aspects of puja include darshan (visual contact with the divine; seeing
and being seen by the divine) and prasad (food sanctified by being offered to a
Fasts, prayers, and auspicious designs
Many Hindus observe days of fasting and prayer determined by a complex
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Astrology is very important to many Hindus (e.g., in determining time for a
marriage).
Many women daily decorate the entrance to their homes with auspicious
designs.
Reverence of trees and rivers
Rivers and particular species of trees are revered throughout India; many rivers
are particularly associated with incidents in mythology.
Environmental pollution is a serious issue in contemporary India.
Pilgrimages
There are pilgrimage sites throughout India, some associated with particular
gods or goddesses, others associated with a revered saint or teacher.
Many holy sites in India are associated with events in the epics and Puranas, and
visiting them is an expression of devotion to the deities associated with that place.
Festivals
Many festivals commemorate key events in the lives of particular gods
and goddesses.
There is some sort of religious festival somewhere in India virtually every
Compared to other religions, women are highly venerated as spiritual ideals in
Hinduism.
o Women contribute to earthly life with dharma, marital wealth, and sensual
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spiritual rituals, but social changes in the nineteenth century reduced many
women to being servants to their families.
In many cases and even today women were considered economic burdens
unless they could provide a wealthy dowry.
3.6 Hinduism in the modern world
The development of Hinduism has been influenced by contact with Buddhism,
Jainism, and, later, Islam and Christianity.
The British and Christian missionaries criticized some Hindu practices.
Modern movements
Various spiritual leaders revitalized Hinduism in the nineteenth century.
o Mahatma Gandhi encouraged grassroots nationalism in the first half of
the twentieth century.
o Ramakrishna (1836 1886) worshiped the divine through many Hindu
Global Hinduism
Immigration and conversion have spread Hinduism far beyond the borders of the
Indian subcontinent where it has left its mark on other cultures.
Hindu identity
Some groups link Hinduism with Indian nationalism.
The Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh, or RSS, seeks to restore India to the idealized
past when Ram (i.e., Rama of the Ramayana, discussed earlier) ruled.
Based on the ideology of Hindutva
Muslims and Christians as alien to India.
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secularism. Some groups, however,
a cover for corruption and pandering to minorities.
Many Hindus argue that Hinduism is tolerant of all paths to the divine, a view
reiterated by the Indian Supreme Court. According to the court, to be Hindu
means:
2.
points of view, recognizing that truth has many sides
4. Acceptance of belief in reincarnation
6. Recognition that there may be numerous gods and goddesses to worship,
without necessarily believing in worship through idols
Key Terms
asana dharma samsara
ashram guru sannyasin
atman Kali Yuga Sanskrit
avatar karma secularism
caste puja Upanishads
chakra reincarnation Vaishnava
Review Questions
1. What is known about the Indus Valley civilization, the Aryans, and their contribution
to the early development of the Brahmanic traditions?
3. Describe the deities and practices associated with each of the three major groupings of
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5. Describe Hindu views regarding social roles and duties with respect to caste, gender,
Discussion Questions
how they
2. Compare and contrast the philosophical positions and practices of Samkhya, varieties
of yoga, and Advaita Vedanta.
3. How to the epics and Puranas of Hinduism represent the Supreme?
Class Assignments/Activities
1. Ask students what they know about yoga. Some are likely to have taken some sort of
yoga class focusing on postures and stretching. Ask them to consider how yoga as
3. Ask students to search the Internet for images of Hindu gods and goddesses and try to
4. Ask students to investigate environmental movements based on Hindu ideals
(possibilities include the Chipko Andolan, Save the Ganges movement).
Recommended Films and Other Materials
The website http://www.harappa.com is a useful source of images from Indus
Valley/Harappan civilization excavations.
Hinduism: Elephant God, Films for the Humanities & Sciences, distributor, 1996. 15
minutes. A film illustrating celebration of a Ganesh festival in Bombay.
Puja: Expressions of Hindu Devotion, Smithsonian Institution, 1996. 20 minutes.
Illustrates puja in temples and homes in India and the United States; includes
interviews with Hindu Americans. The related website
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Additional Class Discussion/Essay Questions
1. Why is Hinduism such a difficult term to define? Use examples from the text to
2. What views of women are engendered by Hinduism? Explain.
4. Why is it difficult to reconstruct a historical chronology of the development of
Hinduism?
5. Discuss the caste system and its effect on modern Indian society. How has it changed