Sociology Chapter 11 Sexual Assault Using The Office The Violence

CHAPTER 11: GENDER

BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. The Social Construction of Gender

A. Defining Sex and Gender

B. Sex Differences: Nature or Nurture?

II. Gender Socialization

A. The Formation of Gender Identity

B. Sources of Gender Socialization

IV. Theories of Gender

A. Feminist Theory and the Women’s Movement

V. Gender in Global Perspective

VI. Gender and Social Change

A. Contemporary Attitudes

B. Legislative Change

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Understand gender as a social construction.

2. Explain the process of gender socialization.

KEY TERMS (listed in text)

biological determinism (272)

Civil Rights Act of 1964 (295)

discrimination (287)

gender apartheid (282)

gender identity (274)

gender segregation (286)

liberal feminism (291)

queer theory (291)

KEY PEOPLE

Kathleen Gerson (294) Arlie Hochschild (289)

Meg Lovejoy (278) Melissa Milkie (275)

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. The Social Construction of Gender

1. Biological and genetic inheritance determines whether we are born

male or female.

A. Defining Sex and Gender – The distinction between sex—biologically

determined—and gender—socially learned expectations and behaviors—is

manifested in culturally based gender expectations and the ways in which gender

is constructed in different societies and cultures.

1. In Western industrialized societies, people tend to think of masculinity and

femininity in dichotomous terms, with men and women decisively different,

B. Sex Differences: Nature or Nurture?

1. The belief persists that differences between men and women are

biologically determined and, therefore, natural and unchanging—this is

called biological determinism. However, biology actually interacts with

3. There is not a fixed relationship between biological and social identities—a

person may remain genetically one sex, while socially being the other.

a. Biological determinism arguments proliferate during times of rapid

social change when people need to seek a sense of stability and want to

II. Gender Socialization

1. Through gender socialization, men and women learn the expectations,

A. The Formation of Gender Identity

1. Gender identity is one’s definition of oneself as a woman or man, or

perhaps as transgender.

2. It is basic to our self-concept and shapes:

a. our expectations of ourselves

B. Sources of Gender Socialization – Gender socialization is reinforced whenever

gender-linked behaviors receive approval or disapproval from agents of gender

socialization.

1. Parents are the primary agent of socialization. Research found that parents

are more tolerant of girls not conforming to gender roles than they are of

boys. For example, fathers discourage their sons from playing with what are

2. Peers are also an important source of gender socialization. Research on

children’s play indicates consistent gender-typed differences.

a. Boys tend to engage in more competitive games with more elaborate

3. Schools communicate to students different gender expectations through:

a. teachers’ expectations

4. Religion—especially the major Judeo-Christian religions in the United

States—place a strong emphasis on gender differences, and religious

5. Media communicate strong gender stereotypes in terms of roles, appearance,

and other presumed cultural ideals of womanhood and manhood.

a. Gender stereotypes and the sexualization of women in the media, which

antifeminism, and more traditional views of women.

C. The Price of Conformity

1. Conformity to stereotypical gender expectations of behavior, appearance,

and roles has negative consequences for both genders, but women in

particular are victims of violence.

2. Gender expectations typically center around a few stereotypes:

D. Gender Socialization and Homophobia

1. The relationship between homophobia (the fear and hatred of gays and

lesbians) and gender socialization illustrates how socialization contributes to

produces numerous myths about gays and lesbians.

E. Race, Gender, and Identity

1. Attitudes about gender roles are influenced by a large number of social

factors.

2. African Americans, for example, have more egalitarian gender role beliefs

F. The Institutional Basis of Gender

1. Gender is embedded in social institutions.

2. Gendered institutions are the total pattern of gender relations that have a

cumulative and systematic effect of gender throughout the institution. This

includes such things as:

a. stereotypical expectations

III. Gender Stratification

1. Gender stratification is the hierarchical distribution of social and economic

resources according to gender.

2. Most societies have some form of gender stratification, although the form

they take may vary from society to society.

3. Comparative research finds greater gender equality in societies in which:

a. women’s work is central to the economy.

4. Extreme segregation and exclusion of women from public life, as in

Afghanistan under the Taliban, has been called gender apartheid.

A. Sexism: The Biased Consequences of Beliefs

1. Sexism is an ideology (a belief system that tries to explain and justify the

4. Matriarchy still exists but not as a mirror image of patriarchy—women hold

economic and social power.

B. Women’s Worth: Still Unequal

1. Gender stratification is observed in the persistent earnings gap between

women and men.

2. In the 1960s, women earned 59% of what men earned; presently women

4. Laws prohibiting gender discrimination have been in place for more than 50

years, since 1963. However, enforcing those laws remains problematic.

5. The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 extended the protections of the

Civil Rights Bill of 1964.

6. Research reveals four strong explanations for the continuing pay gap

between men and women:

a. Human Capital Theory explains some of the difference in terms of

individual characteristics that workers bring to jobs, such as education,

intimidation.

C. The Devaluation of Women’s Work

1. Most women and men still work in occupations that are gender-segregated to

some extent, with “women’s work” being lower paid and therefore lower in

prestige, such as elementary school teachers and work related to child care.

Additionally, Pediatrics is considered a less prestigious specialty than

cardiology.

D. Balancing Work and Family

1. Although some changes are evident, women continue to hold primary

responsibility for meeting the needs of families, particular household labor.

for working women.

IV. Theories of Gender

1. Functionalist theory emphasizes people’s socialization into prescribed roles

as the major impetus behind inequality; men fill instrumental roles, whereas

A. Feminist Theory and the Women’s Movement

1. Feminist sociologists have developed an adaptation of symbolic interaction

to explain the social construction of gender.

a. An approach known as doing gender interprets gender as something

2. Feminist theory has developed in the context of the women’s movement

and forms the bedrock upon which feminists have built their programs of

social and political change. The major framework includes:

V. Gender in Global Perspective

1. The global division of labor is acquiring a gendered component, with women

workers and child labor—usually from the poorest countries—providing the

cheapest labor for the manufacturing of products for the richer industrial

2. In addition to women’s lower status in work, women are rarely in positions

of top leadership and the education of women lags behind that of men.

3. The world’s women also face widespread abuse, now considered a global

epidemic, in the form of:

VI. Gender and Social Change

1. A major transformation in the public consciousness resulted from the

women’s movement. It:

A. Contemporary Attitudes

1. The heightened public consciousness about sexism and its inappropriateness

is one of the most significant results of the feminist movement.

B. Legislative Change

1. Laws that promote change include:

a. The Equal Pay Act of 1963.

b. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 bans discrimination in hiring,

LECTURE/DISCUSSION SUGGESTIONS

1. Gender Segregation. Identify students in your class, or invite men or women who

have crossed the boundaries established by gender segregation, to speak about their

2. Gender Segregation and the Pay Gap. The major labor unions have websites that

document gender segregation and the pay gap in specific occupations. Use overheads

3. Feminist Majority. Does your campus have a Feminist Majority chapter? Many

campuses do. If so, you may want to invite student members to speak to the class about

their projects and the work of Feminist Majority. If your campus does not, your class

4. Women and HIV/AIDS. Draw students’ attention to global inequalities through case

studies of women and HIV/AIDS. Major, regular reports are available through the

5. Feminist Theory. Explore in greater depth the contributions of feminist theory; use

examples of significant studies representing various frameworks.

6. Gender Stratification and Economics. Have students trace gender stratification from

foraging societies to today’s postmodern culture. What factors contribute to the

increased gender inequity and stratification from early man until today’s societies?

7. Gender Socialization. Review the agents of socialization and have students relate this

8. Debunking Society’s Myth. “Black women are taking jobs away from white men.”

Sociological research finds no evidence of this claim. Ask your students to debate

this issue as part of a classroom discussion.

9. Sexual Assault. Using the Office of the Violence Against Women (OVW)

the chapter suggest would eventually reduce or stop sexual violence?

10. Dove Campaign for Real Beauty. Watch the original commercial campaign from

STUDENT ACTIVITIES

1. Society and Changing Gender. Ask students to write a short essay on gender

socialization, gender segregation, women in politics, or violence toward women.

2. Gendered Behavior. Ask students to observe and record gendered behaviors and roles

in various social contexts, including playgrounds, toy stores, childcare facilities, health

3. Gender Socialization. Ask students to reflect on the process of their own gender

socialization. What were the expectations and influences of the different agents of

4. Gendered Occupations. Ask students to research and write a report on the gendered

structure of the occupation they plan to enter. Is the occupation itself considered

5. Gendered Institutions. Assign teams of students to study various aspects of your

college or university as a gendered institution. This would include patterns of

6. The Pay Gap. Have students organize a forum/discussion to explore the major

explanations for the continuing wage gap between men and women in the paid labor

force. End the forum or discussion with an exploration of effective strategies—

emerging from each explanation—to narrow the pay gap. This discussion could be

conducted online.

7. Perceptions to Gender Appropriate Behavior. Have students take the true/false quiz

8. See for Yourself. Assign the class the See for Yourself exercise on page 270 of the

textbook. Afterwards, hold a classroom discussion related to the unexpected

9. Women’s Global Status. Ask students to visit the United Nations Women Watch

10. The Status of Women in the United States. The Institute on Women’s Policy

VIDEO SUGGESTIONS

Outlawed in Pakistan (2013, 53 min., PBS Frontline).

In Pakistan, just talking about rape and sexual violence is a cultural taboo. But bringing a

Gender Puzzle (2005, 45 min., Journeyman Pictures)

Are we on the cusp of discovering what determines gender? The old mantra, all girls

have XX chromosomes and all boys have XY, is no longer reliable. This high-quality

documentary looks at the new and challenging science of gender.

Exposed (2013, 77 min.)

Exposed profiles eight women and men who use their nakedness to transport us beyond the

last sexual and social taboos that our society holds dear. These cutting-edge performers—

Mad Men, Season 1, Pilot (2007, approx. 50 min.)

This original series by AMC looks at an advertising agency in 1960. The first episode of

the first season demonstrates the common sexism and racism that infiltrated office settings

and home life at the time.

The Office, Season 2, Episode 2: Sexual Harassment (2005, approx. 25 min.)

The fictional office of Dunder Mifflin institutes a new sexual harassment policy that

everyone has to abide by (including the blundering boss, Michael, and his former

colleague, Todd Packer).

Girls Like Us (1997, 60 min.)

This documentary follows four working class girls from South Philadelphia during four

years, dealing with issues such as early pregnancy, sexism, racism, and family

structure.

Born into Brothels: Calcutta’s Red Light (2004, 85 min.)

This Academy Award winning documentary was made with photographs taken by the

The Motherhood Manifesto (2006, 59 min.)

This film, put out by a group called Moms Rising, looks at U.S. policies regarding

families and mothers and points out how the United States really is not a “family friendly”

nation. The film also suggests several solutions to each policy problem, including finding

a way to medically insure every family, provide paid parental leave and affordable

childcare and flexible work scheduling. While the beginning of the film is incredibly

corny, I have found that students are surprised and interested in the information presented

Tough Guise 2: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity (2013, 7 min.)

The preview for Tough Guise includes a great deal of pithy information from the film,

including significant data about the rates of violent crime committed by men. If your class

does not have enough time to show the entire Tough Guise video, this seven-minute

segment brings up good ideas and can serve as a jumping off point for discussion.

Us Softly series, the first in more than a decade, takes a fresh look at American advertising

and discovers that the more things have changed, the more they’ve stayed the same.

Killing Us Softly 4: Advertising’s Image of Women (2010, 7 min.)

www.killingussoftly4.org/

Dreamworlds 3: Desire, Sex & Power in Music Video (2007, available in 60 min. or 35

min.)

This classic film about the sexualization of women and violence against women depicted

in music videos has finally been updated in 2007. Although the video contains significant

Dreamworlds 3: Desire, Sex & Power in Music Video (6 min.)

Again, the Media Education Foundation provides a nice clip from this film that would

work well to start discussions if there wasn’t time to watch the entire film. In this clip, Sut

Jhally points out the similarities between well-accepted music videos and a real-life mob-

style sexual assault. The preview can be found at: https://shop.mediaed.org/dreamworlds-

3-p86.aspx

* Mona Lisa Smile (2003, 119 min.)

This movie could be considered a female counterpart to Dead Poets’ Society in that it

The Pill (2003, 45 min.)

This documentary helps students understand the importance of the sexual revolution.

The Codes of Gender: Identity and Performance in Pop Culture (2010, 120 min. or abridged

46 min.)

Arguing that advertising not only sells things, but also ideas about the world, media

scholar Sut Jhally offers a blistering analysis of commercial culture’s inability to let go of

VIDEO ACTIVITIES

Have students view Mona Lisa Smile and write a paper which recreates similar struggles

within a contemporary cultural setting. Ask them to comment on the degree and ways in

which American culture has progressed in allowing young women the freedom to choose

their way of life.

After watching Killing Us Softly 4, assign students to various types of media (e.g.,

film, magazines, radio, etc.), and have them find examples of sexist advertising and

bring them to class and present them with analyses.

INTERNET EXERCISES

1. The Feminist Majority website (http://www.feminist.org/welcome/contactUs.asp)

provides extensive resources for news and research on feminist issues, with several

2. The Institute for Women’s Policy Research website (https://iwpr.org/) is a rich source

of data on women’s status as well as research and policy reports. The site has an

3. The U.S. Department of Labor: Women’s Bureau website

4. United Nations Statistics Division: Statistics and Indicators on Women and Men: It

5. National Center for Health Statistics: Using data from

6. Many colleges and universities offer classes in their psychology department on the

psychology of women. On one campus the possibility of offering this class led to a

heated debate about the inequity of this class offering. Many male professors felt the

campus should also offer classes in the Psychology of Men. Do you agree? Justify

7. The United States Department of Labor Women’s Bureau offers research and

8. Women’s Sports Foundation is a nonprofit organization addressing women’s