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Chapter 9

9

INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying the material in this chapter, the student should be able to

understand the following ideas/concepts.

9.1 DEFINING INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

• State how intelligence and creativity are typically defined.

9.2 THE INFANT

• Name and describe methods of assessing infant intelligence.

9.3 THE CHILD

• Summarize the research on stability of IQ scores over the course of childhood and

9.4 THE ADOLESCENT

9.5 THE ADULT

• Evaluate whether IQ scores are a useful predictor of occupational status and health status

9.6 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE IQ SCORES OVER THE LIFESPAN

• Analyze the research on genetic and environmental contributions to intelligence and

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9.7 THE EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE

• Distinguish among different levels of intellectual disability.

• Summarize the likely causes of intellectual disability and what efforts might help reduce

cognitive development covered in Chapters 7, 8, and now 9.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Defining Intelligence and Creativity

A. Early Definitions of Intelligence

1. Piaget defined intelligence as thinking or adaptive behavior

B. The Psychometric Approach

1. Psychometric approach—spawned the development of standardized

intelligence tests

a. Focus on measurement of intelligence (defined as set of traits that

characterize individual)

b. Goal is to identify and measure these traits

b. Crystallized intelligence – use of knowledge acquired through

experience (e.g., school, life experience) like general information, word

comprehension, numeric abilities

c. Fluid involves using mind in new and flexible way; crystallized

involves using what one has already learned

4. Emerging consensus on intelligence

a. A “top” general ability factor that influences performance on wide

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c. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale – adaptation of Binet’s test that was

developed by Lewis Terman at Stanford University for use with American

children

i. Terman developed a method of calculating an intelligence quotient

(IQ)—calculated by dividing mental age (MA) by chronological age (CA)

and multiplying by 100 (IQ=MA/CA x 100)

d. David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Scales

i. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) for

children between ages 3 and 8

ii. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) for

distribution—bell-shaped spread around average score of 100

i. Scores around average are most common; very high and low scores

are rarer

ii. Two-thirds of people have IQ scores between 85 and 115

(correspond to a spread of one standard deviation above and below the

average)

iii. Fewer that 3% score above 130 (sometimes used as a criteria for

giftedness) or below 70 (sometimes used as a criteria for intellectual

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C. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

1. Rejects single IQ model in favor of at least eight distinct kinds of

intelligences

2. Many of the types of intelligence are not found on standard intelligence

tests

a. Linguistic – language skills

h. Naturalistic – world of plants and animals

3. Does not claim that this is the definitive list of intelligence

4. Savant syndrome – extraordinary talent in an intellectually disabled person

a. Leslie Lemke: blind, intellectually disabled cerebral palsy, but can

5. Distinct intelligences linked to distinctive brain structures

D. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory and Successful Intelligence

1. Triarchic Theory – emphasis on three aspects of intellectual behavior

(practical/contextual, creative/experiential, analytic)

2. Practical component – intelligence defined by sociocultural context in

which it is displayed (e.g., people who have adapted well to environment have

“street smarts”)

3. Creative component – impact of experience (e.g., what is intelligent the

first time a task is encountered may not be intelligent after extensive experience

with the task)

a. Response to novelty requires active, conscious information processing

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culture

4. Analytic component – information-processing skills assessed by

traditional intelligence tests

a. People high on this component can plan what to do, monitor progress,

5. Theory of successful intelligence – intelligence is the extent to which an

individual succeeds in life, according to his or her own definition of success

within his or her sociocultural context (not just doing well in school)

1. Creative thinking is distinct from, and not well correlated with, IQ scores

and grades

2. IQ tests measure divergent thinking—variety of solutions when there is no

one correct answer

3. Creativity tests assess convergent thinking—finding a variety of solutions

a. Responses on divergent tasks analyzed along three dimensions

4. Confluence – coming together of several factors to form a new product

a. Sternberg argues that creativity is a confluence of factors

i. Knowledge of the field in which creativity may emerge

ii. A thinking style open to new ways of thinking

with higher IQ, there is little relationship between intelligence and creativity

Checking Mastery

1. What is the difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence?

➢ Answer: Fluid intelligence involves using your mental skills to solve

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acquired through school or experience to answer questions.

2. What is the main point of Gardner’s theory of intelligence?

➢ Answer: Gardner’s theory emphasizes that there are multiple—at least

3. What three factors contribute to intelligence according to Sternberg?

➢ Answer: Sternberg believes that three factors contribute to intelligence:

4. How does creativity compare to intelligence and how is it typically measured?

➢ Answer: Creativity is the ability to produce novel responses. It is typically

II. The Infant

A. Bayley Scales

1. None of the standard intelligence tests can be used with children younger than

three because of the required verbal and attention skills

2. Bailey Scales of Infant Development (1 to 42 months)

a. Most widely used scale of developmental milestones (has three parts/scales)

B. Infant Intelligence as a Predictor of Later Intelligence

1. Low correlation between DQ scores and later IQ scores

2. Explanations for this lack of relationship

3. Some relationship between measures of infant attention and later IQ; predictors

include:

4. “Smart” infant is a speedy processor, gets quickly bored by the same old thing,

seeks novel experiences, and soaks up information rapidly

Checking Mastery

1. What do the Bayley Scales of Infant Development assess?

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2. What characteristics or behaviors of infants are associated with later intelligence?

➢ Answer: The speed with which infants process information shows some

to being able to process information quickly.

III. The Child

A. The Stability of IQ Scores during Childhood?

1. IQ scores are fairly stable starting at about age four

a. High short-term predictability

B. Causes of Gain and Loss

1. Fluctuation in individual IQ score greatest if child in unstable environment

C. The Emergence of Creativity

1. Developmental course of creativity

a. Preschool children display high levels of divergent thinking

2. What a creative child is like

a. Creative children have more humor, originality, playfulness than high-IQ

3. Creativity influenced by different factors than IQ

a. Genetic factors do not appear to impact creativity

4. Factors that impact creativity quite distinct from the cognitive abilities measured

on IQ tests

Checking Mastery

1. Once children reach elementary school, how stable are their IQ scores as a group?

➢ Answer: From elementary school on, IQ scores are fairly stable, at least in terms

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2. What is one reason for an individual’s IQ score to increase and what is one reason for

an individual’s IQ score to decrease during childhood?

➢ Answer: IQ scores might decrease if children experience significant health

IV. The Adolescent

A. Continuity between Childhood and Adulthood

1. Rapid intellectual growth in early adolescence, then levels off

2. Increasing stability of individual differences during the teen years

B. Flynn Effect

1. Flynn effect – during the twentieth century, IQ scores in many countries increased

a. United States, 3 to 4 IQ point increase per decade

i. Adults born in 1980 will soon score 6 to 8 points higher than those born in

1960

d. Children more educated

C. IQ and School Achievement

1. Original purpose of IQ was to estimate how well children would do in school

2. General intellectual ability is one of the best predictors of academic achievement

a. Adolescents with high IQ scores less likely to drop out of college

D. Fostering Creativity

1. Timing of creativity dependent on culture and pressure to conform

2. Creativity impacted by type of task

3. Creative thinking stable from fourth to ninth grade, but creative feelings (e.g.,

curiosity, imagination) increase significantly in adolescence

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ii. Tests of creativity require assessment of specific talents and distinct skills

Checking Mastery

1. Is creativity or intelligence more stable during adolescence?

➢ Answer: Intelligence is likely to be much more stable in adolescence than

2. What might explain the rise in IQ scores over the past century?

➢ Answer: Fewer infectious diseases and improved educational opportunities seem

to be associated with the Flynn effect—the rise in IQ scores over the past century.

3. What is one environmental factor that could help enhance creativity?

➢ Answer: Creativity can be fostered by providing an environment that provides

V The Adult

A. IQ and Occupational Success

1. Some occupations require more intellectual ability than others (more complexity)

a. General intelligence is significantly related to both income and occupational

prestige

d. IQs vary considerably with every occupation

2. Performance on the job also related to IQ

B. IQ and Health

1. People who score higher on intelligence tests tend to live healthier and longer

lives

a. Less likely to have lung cancer and cardiovascular or coronary disease

intelligence and health

2. Monitoring health may require same skills as doing well on intelligence tests

a. Better monitoring may lead to successful management of disorder

b. Intelligent people with diabetes learn more about the disorder

C. Changes in IQ with Age

1. Individual IQ scores remain relatively stable from pre-adolescence until well into

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verbal IQ stable, performance peak 20-24

c. Sequential design (Schaie)

i. Different cohorts tested at different times

ii. When a person is born has great impact on intellect (cohort effect)

d. Performance on speeded tests declines more

i. Speed loss may be related to slowing of central nervous system

3. Declines in intellectual abilities generally minor until late 60s or 70s

4. Declines are not universal

5. Range of differences in intellectual functioning of older adults extremely large

D. Predictors of Decline

1. Poor health

a. Chronic illness and diseases related to intellectual decline

d. “Use it or lose it!”—more you use intellect, the less the loss

E. Potential for Wisdom

1. Erikson: older adults gain wisdom facing death and meaning of life

a. Term “wise” seldom used to describe children or young adults

2. Wisdom – expert knowledge in fundamental aspects of life

3. Sternberg’s aspects of a wise person describe someone who can combine

successful intelligence with creativity to solve problems

4. Staudinger, Smith, and Baltes study of well-educated women found that:

6. Wisdom best thought of as combination of intelligence, personality, and cognitive

style factors

F. Creative Endeavors

1. Creative production usually greatest from 20s to early 40s in most fields and then

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gradually declines

2. Actual peak times of creativity vary by field

a. Creative productivity of scholarship in the humanities continues well into old

age

3. Creative achievement requires both enthusiasm and experience (most likely to

occur in people in their 30s and 40s)

4. Simonton suggests creativity requires both ideation and elaboration

a. Ideation – generating creative ideas

Checking Mastery

1. What do IQ scores predict during adulthood?

➢ Answer: IQ scores of adults have been found to correlate with occupational

2. What are two factors that contribute to a decline in IQ scores among older adults?

➢ Answer: Poor health is likely to contribute to declining IQ scores among older

their peers who are inactive.

3. How is wisdom different from intelligence?

➢ Answer: Someone can be intelligent, as measured by the questions on an IQ test,

VI Factors that Influence IQ Scores over the Life Span

A. Genes and Environments

1. Pioneers of the IQ testing movement believe that differences exist simply because

some people inherit better genes (hereditarians position)

a. Identical twin IQ scores more similar than fraternal IQ scores

2. Environmental influences on intelligence

a. Environmental risk factors (e.g., unemployed head of household, family with

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ii. Amount of stimulation parents provide not as important as whether that

stimulation is responsive to child’s behavior

B. Poverty

1. Child poverty involves low parent income and low levels of meeting a child’s

basic needs

a. Children living in poverty often have inadequate healthcare, live in

2. Socioeconomic status affects IQ scores and rate of intellectual growth

3. Neuroplasticity – brain’s responsiveness to environment

a. Adoption from lower-class into middle-class homes associated with higher IQ

C. Race and Ethnicity

1. Studies finding ethnic differences in IQ spark controversy

2. Some studies show differences shrinking, others see similar historic gap (e.g.,

4. Cannot predict individual IQ merely on basis of racial or ethnic identity

5. Racial and ethnic difference in IQ scores may involve biased test

a. Culture bias – possible bias in test questions

i. Questions may be more appropriate for middle-class children

ii. Children who speak Ebonics or Spanish at home may not understand some

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because of anxiety or fear of being judged by examiner who is often of

different racial/ethnic background

i. Disadvantaged children score 7 to 10 points higher when with a friendly

examiner and when given questions that are a mix of easy and hard items

ii. African-American children sometimes less comfortable in testing

situations

iii. Poor performance by African-American children may be the result of a

6. Possible genetic factors

a. Heated debate in psychology about role of genetics in intelligence

7. Possible environmental influences

a. Adoption research supports critical impact of environment placement in

advantaged homes’ positive impact on lower-income African-American

children

Checking Mastery

1. How does home environment, as measured with the HOME inventory, influence IQ

scores?

➢ Answer: A home environment that has age-appropriate stimulating toys, books,

2. What are two hypotheses about why IQ tests yield racial/ethnic differences in scores?

➢ Answer: There may be racial/ethnic differences on IQ tests because of biases in

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VII. The Extremes of Intelligence

A. Intellectual Disability

1. Intellectual disabilities referred to as “mental retardation” for decades

2. Significantly below-average intellectual functioning (i.e., IQ score below 70-75)

and limitations in meeting age-appropriate expectations in everyday functioning

(e.g., self-care)

of development and require basic care (and possibly institutionalization)

5. Organic intellectual disability – due to biological cause (heredity, disease, injury)

a. Down syndrome – extra 21st chromosome

6. Most cases on intellectual disability have no identifiable organic cause

a. Likely a combination of genetic and environmental factors

7. Historically about 3% of school-age children classified with intellectual disability

a. Often have associated impairments (e.g., cerebral palsy, sensory disorders)

b. Parents have both positive and negative reactions to having their child

diagnosed with an intellectual disability

i. Mothers report higher levels of stress

8. Children with intellectual disabilities tend to follow same developmental

sequence as other children

B. Giftedness

1. Use to be identified solely by IQ score (at least 130)

2. Increased recognition that gifted children have special abilities rather than high

general intelligence

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4. Renzulli states giftedness as combination of above-average ability, creativity, and

task commitment

5. Gottfried’s research

a. Identified potentially gifted children at age 18 months

6. Silverman and colleagues research

a. Used the Characteristics of Giftedness Scale

7. German’s research

a. Study of 1,500 gifted children (Termites) begun in 1921

b. Intellectually gifted children also better adjusted, better-than-average health,

earlier puberty

c. Gifted children quick to take on leadership roles

d. Challenged stereotype of intellectuals as weak and frail

10. Some with high IQs (closer to 180 than 130) are unhappy and socially isolated

11. Most well-adjusted adults had highly educated parents who offer love and

intellectual stimulation

C. Integrating Cognitive Perspectives

1. Piaget—modes of thought change qualitatively with age (like a caterpillar into a

butterfly)

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Checking Mastery

1. How is intellectual disability defined?

➢ Answer: Intellectual disability is defined by two factors: an IQ score of 70–75 or

2. What characterizes the typical gifted person?

➢ Answer: The typical gifted person usually scores high on an IQ test and does well

3. How does the definition of intelligence vary across the various approaches presented

in Chapters 7, 8, and 9?

➢ Answer: The psychometric approach to intelligence assumes that intelligence is a

with which information can be processed.

SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSIONS OR PROJECTS: To develop critical thinking skills

and enhance learning with exercises that support the course learning objectives.

1. Assumed Traits of Highly Intelligent People: Ask your students to name behaviors and traits

The class might also try to generate lists of behaviors and traits associated with creative and non-

creative people. Are the concepts of creativity and intelligence in any way related?

3. Environment and Intelligence: This chapter describes the relationship between home

environment and intellectual performance and provides sample items from the HOME inventory.

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4. Stimulating Infant Intelligence: Some people have recently argued that providing stimulation

has gone overboard when parents begin coaching infants and young children with flashcards and

5. Pros and Cons of IQ Testing: Given the many criticisms of IQ tests reflected in the chapter,

have students discuss in small groups whether it is a good or a bad idea to have some method of

assessing individual intelligence. When are intelligence tests used? Should they be used for those

purposes? What alternatives to these tests might exist? Ask students to try to design a “new and

6. Genius: Have students generate a list of 10 of the most famous geniuses of all time. After

students have generated a list, have them share their ideas with the class. Do the lists that

students generate better fit with an IQ model or with Gardner’s model of intelligence? Is there

significant agreement on who belongs on the list?

7. Cultural Bias and Intelligence Tests: If you have a number of students from different ethnic

or geographic backgrounds in the class, have each student create a 10-item culturally biased

8. Creativity: To spur a discussion on the definition of “creativity,” have students each write

down an example of a behavior that they have engaged in that they believe illustrates that they

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