Psychology Chapter 10 Children With Greater Working Memory And Attention

Chapter 10

10

LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying the material in this chapter, the student should be able to

understand the following ideas/concepts.

10.1 THE SYSTEM OF LANGUAGE

• Describe the function of each component of a spoken language system.

10.2 THE INFANT

• Describe the typical path of language acquisition during the first two years.

10.3 THE CHILD

• Indicate the changes in language development that occur in childhood.

10.4 THE ADOLESCENT

• Explain why levels of academic achievement decline in adolescence and provide two

methods to stop this decline.

10.5 THE ADULT

• Describe language changes in adulthood.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Chapter 10

I The System of Language

A. Definition of Language

1. Language – communication system of limited sounds, letters, gestures, combined

B. Basic Components

1. Key aspects of language to be mastered

a. Phoneme – basic units of sounds from any given language

i. English /b/ as in bit

ii. More phonemes than letters as some letters can be pronounced in different

ways

iii. Each language defines which sounds can be combined (e.g., in English

C. Biology

1. Neurobiology of language

a. Language is often largely a product of left hemispheric activity in Broca’s

area (associated with speech production) and Wernicke’s area (associated with

comprehension of language)

b. Based on new brain imaging techniques (functional magnetic resonance

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D. Theories: Nature and Nurture

1. Nature: Innate Predispositions

a. Chomsky’s theory proposed that humans have a unique genetic capacity to

learn language

i. Equipped with universal grammar—system of common rules and

b. Evidence supporting nativist perspective

i. “Learnability factor” – children acquire an incredibly complex

communication system rapidly and without formal training

ii. Similar stages of linguistic progression occurring at similar ages

c. Is there a critical period in language acquisition?

i. There may not be a critical period in language acquisition; differences

may be related to level of exposure and immersion (which is much greater

for speech

2. Nurture: the contributions of the environment and learning

a. Environmental influences on language acquisition

i. Children learn words that they hear

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ii. Explains why children speak language of parents down to regional accent

iii. Children are more likely to use a word if reinforced for using the word

3. Nature and nurture working together

a. Combination of learning and nativist position

i. Both nature and nurture are critical

iv. Infants learn turn-taking before they use words

b. Child-directed speech – style of speech used by adults when talking with

children

i. Simple, short sentences

ii. Repetition and high-pitched voice (with exaggerated emphasis on words)

d. Expansion – adult method for improving language by encouraging children to

expand on their verbalizations

i. Effective adult conversation practices provide corrective feedback that is

often subtle

e. Language acquisition requires interaction between biologically prepared child

with at least one conversational partner who ideally tailors his or her own

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native language

b. Very young infants can distinguish phonemes

c. Before they can speak, infants are sensitive to the pause between words

d. By seven-and-a-half months, infants demonstrate word segmentation—ability

k. Deaf children initially sound like hearing children, but without auditory

experience/feedback, they eventually show delay in language development

l. Advanced babblers restrict sounds to phonemes of language they are hearing

and pick up intonation of language

m. Infants attempt to master semantics—meaning of language

Checking Mastery

1. What are the basic components of language that children must master in order to

communicate effectively?

➢ Answer: Children must learn which sounds are used in their language and how

2. How is the brain structured to support language skills?

➢ Answer: The brain is structured to support language in various ways, with

3. What are the main features of the nativist and learning theories of language

acquisition?

➢ Answer: Nativists believe that we are born with an innate ability to sift through

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II The Infant

A. Mastering Language

1. The first words

a. Holophrases – single words convey many things (single-word sentences)

i. The way in which a holophrase is said and the context in which it is said

determines its meaning

c. Vocabulary spurt – increase in vocabulary size around 18 months (e.g., 18

months = 30-50 words, 24 months = 300 words)

d. Overextension – use word too broadly (e.g., “dog” for all four-legged animals)

e. Underextension – use word too narrowly (e.g., “dog” for only the family pet

and no other dogs)

f. Over- and underextension are examples of Piagetian assimilation and may be

due to small vocabularies or not yet learning the name of an object

2. Telegraphic speech

a. Telegraphic speech – early combinations of two to four words into sentences

that are like telegrams

i. Normally seen around 18 to 24 months; combine two or three words in

simple sentences

ii. Sentences contain critical content and omit frills

iii. Follow systematic rules

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B. Mastery Motivation

1. Mastery motivation – intrinsic (internal) motivation to succeed

2. Infants intrinsically motivated to master environment (i.e., are innately curious)

3. Key influences on mastery motivation

a. Goal may hold different levels of value for different infants

4. Early mastery motivation affects later achievement (i.e., parents can strengthen or

weaken inborn motive to act)

C. Early Education

1. No need to provide special early childhood experiences

a. Elkind says that too much early stimulation may be detrimental

b. Children simply need time to play and socialize as they choose

c. Elkind worries that when their lives are too orchestrated by parents, children

may lose self-initiative and intrinsic motivation to learn

Checking Mastery

1. Through what stages does early language acquisition progress?

➢ Answer: Young infants begin making sounds and demonstrate sensitivity to

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2. Give an example of an overregularization of language.

3. What is mastery motivation?

➢ Answer: Mastery motivation refers to the infant’s desire to take control of—

4. What is one advantage and one potential disadvantage of early education programs

for infants and toddlers?

➢ Answer: Early education programs can offer children from disadvantaged homes

III The Child

A. Expanding Language Skills

1. By age three, children have internalized standards of performance and experience

pride and shame depending on their level of success

2. Some children are more achievement oriented and are higher achievers than

others

3. Later language development

a. School-age children show improved pronunciation, larger vocabulary, can

infer meaning

B. Achievement Motivation

1. Mastery orientation – drive to succeed despite challenge (i.e., persist in the face of

failure, believe that increased efforts will pay off)

a. High achievers blame failure on external factors

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2. Child contributions

a. Before age seven

i. Unrealistic optimism even after poor performance

ii. Even with poor performance, they continue to believe that they have the

b. Older children (late elementary and middle school)

i. Acquire performance goals—emphasis on proving ability rather than

improving ability and seek to be judged as smart and not dumb

c. Child’s overall intelligence contributes to academic success (but just a piece

of the puzzle)

i. Motivation and achievement are both higher when children value a subject

3. Parent contributions for fostering higher levels of achievement motivation

a. Key to stress independence and self-reliance at early age

b. Emphasize importance of doing well and meeting high standards

4. Fryer study on whether students could be bribed into earning higher standardized

test scores

a. Test conducted in Chicago, New York, Dallas, and Washington, DC

b. In Chicago, ninth graders could earn up to $2,000 per year ($50 per each A

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5. School contributions

a. Focus on external rewards (e.g., grades) may encourage the adoption of

performance goals rather than mastery goals

b. Emphasis on competitive race for best grades a bad practice in that students

come to view the grade and not learning as the goal

C. Learning to Read

1. Acquiring the ability to read may be the most important achievement in school

2. Reading acquisition is an “unnatural task” that requires formal education

3. Mastering the alphabetic principle—idea that printed letters represent words—is

5. Emergent literacy – developmental precursors of reading skills (including

knowledge, skills, attitudes)

a. Children with greater working memory and attention control have higher

degree of reading readiness

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6. Skilled and unskilled readers

a. Skilled readers have a solid understanding of the alphabetic principle (notion

that letters must be connected to phonemes)

b. Phonological awareness level critical (i.e., must connect sound to letter)

7. How should reading be taught?

a. Phonetic approach (code-oriented) versus whole-word (look-say)

i. Phonetic approach emphasizes letter-sound correspondence

D. Effective Schools, Effective Learning

1. No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 created pressure on schools to demonstrate

effectiveness through annual increases in student proficiency

a. Some schools seem to do a better job

2. Less important factors

a. Level of funding directly aimed at classroom instruction may increase

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d. Amount of time spent in school (modest increases in time result in modest

3. School Environment Interaction

a. Students

i. May be affected by genetic factors tied to aptitude

ii. Schools with preponderance of economically advantaged children do

b. Teachers

i. Better-quality teachers (e.g., quality of teacher’s undergraduate

educational institutions and their licensure exam score) lead to better

outcomes

ii. Good teachers can have significantly positive impacts on students’

performance (50 points higher on standardized tests)

Checking Mastery

1. What is the difference between a mastery (or learning) goal and a performance goal?

➢ Answer: A mastery or learning goal emphasizes understanding something in

“What did I learn?”

2. What is one characteristic that differentiates a skilled reader from a less-skilled

reader?

➢ Answer: Skilled readers have mastered the alphabetic principle and quickly

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3. What are three factors that characterize an effective learning environment?

➢ Answer: Effective schools maximize time on academics and minimize time on

IV The Adolescent

A. Declining Levels of Achievement

1. Teens (especially in grades six to nine) tend to become less dedicated to

academics

2. Student risk factors include minority group status, low maternal education and

mental health, stressful life events, family size, and father absence

6. Peer pressures may undermine achievement motivation

a. Especially negative impact on academics in lower-income minority students

i. Thought of by peers as “acting white”

7. Poor person-environment fit may contribute to decline in motivation

a. Reaching puberty may result in drop in self-esteem

b. Changes in grade level of transition into middle school do not significantly

impact achievement

c. Most negative impact in middle-school transition if child’s developmental

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B. Cross-Cultural Differences

1. Skills necessary for an industrialized society

3. Poorer cross-cultural showing of U.S. students mainly due to cultural differences

in attitudes concerning education and academics (especially when compared to

students in Asian nations)

a. Students in Asian nations spend more time in school and engaging in on-task

C. Integrating Work and School

1. Many American and Canadian children work outside of school; fewer in other

industrialized nations

2. Working students (at least 20 hours per week) experience positive and negative

effects

a. Working students gain knowledge of work, consumer issues, and financial

management

b. Working students have lower GPAs

D. Pathways to Adulthood

1. Educational pathways somewhat constrained by intelligence and aptitude levels

2. Dropping out of high school can negatively impact career path

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Checking Mastery

1. What are two reasons why achievement motivation may decline during adolescence?

➢ Answer: Adolescents are better able than younger children to realistically

2. Why might students in Asian schools outperform many other students in science and

math?

➢ Answer: Asian schools typically spend more time on academics and they are

3. What is one advantage and one disadvantage of working while in high school?

➢ Answer: Working during high school can foster independence from parents and

V The Adult

A. Language

a. Changes in adulthood

i. Knowledge of phonology, grammar, syntax usually retained in adulthood

ii. May have trouble distinguishing sounds if hearing becomes impaired

B. Achievement Motivation

1. Achievement motivation stable through adulthood

2. Women with higher levels of education more likely to be motivated to achieve

C. Literacy

1. 14% of adults in United States at lowest level of literacy

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2. Literacy important to economic security

a. Nearly half of adults with lowest literacy live in poverty

b. Improved literacy does not automatically raise from poverty

3. Programs to raise literacy in adults are rarely effective

D. Continuing Education

1. Many adults seek higher education

a. 40% of college students are 25 or older

b. Number of adults in college (adult learners, nontraditionals, returning

students, mature students, lifelong learners) expected to increase

Checking Mastery

1. How might men’s and women’s achievement motivation change during adulthood?

➢ Answer: Achievement motivation is fairly consistent over the adult years: Those

situations than by age.

2. Why is literacy important to adults? Are literacy programs successful?

➢ Answer: Literacy is the ticket to many opportunities in adulthood and is required

SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSIONS OR PROJECTS: To develop critical thinking skills

and enhance learning with exercises that support the course learning objectives.

1. Language Samples: Play samples of children’s language (YouTube is a nice source, search

using “children’s speech”). Ideally, try to capture children of different ages. Have students

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2. School Readiness: Ask students to discuss factors that should or could be used to indicate

readiness for school. Traditionally, age six years has been used as the indicator, which works fine

for the average child. Besides age, what other factors should be considered? You could also ask

3. Achievement and Performance: A lack of achievement motivation is a major detriment to

academic performance. It is likely that many students in the class have personal experience and

4. Degree Seeking Motivation: Many classrooms now include students from a wide range of

ages. The text authors indicate that traditional-age freshman and older students may be operating

5. Adult Education: The “adult education” market is expected to increase significantly in the

next few decades, and an increasing number of institutions are marketing directly to this

6. Speech and Language Disorders: In Chapter 10, students are provided with a superb review

of the progression of normal language development. In addition, the authors note the existence of

two types of deviation: “dyslexia” and “aphasia.” In reality, there are numerous speech and

language disorders not covered in the text that impact children, adolescents, and adults. The

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the disorder and then provide some advice on the best way to assist individuals with the problem.