c. After a meal, high levels of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids lead to a/an
(decrease or increase) in insulin secretion.
e. Insulin travels in the blood and binds to what type of receptors on the cell mem-
brane? _________ _________
f. What is the approximate half-life of insulin? _________
5. Diabetes:
a. Type (1 or 2) diabetes is characterized by a resistance of the target cells to
insulin. Plasma insulin levels are normal or high.
d. Glucose acts as a/an _________ __________, leading to increased urine flow.
e. Increased lipolysis produces an increase in _______ ______, which, when used as
fuel, produces _________.
6. a. Lipid-soluble hormones such as _________ and __________ hormones bind to
receptors located _______________.
7. a. Cortisol is classified as a/an ________ hormone. Name four major actions of
cortisol.
1. _____________________ 3. _____________________
8. a. The main function of thyroid hormones is: ______________________.
Three other specific functions include:
Endocrine System:
The Hypothalamic–Pituitary Axis
1. The anterior pituitary is composed of __________ tissue. Name the six classic hor-
mones whose functions are well known.
1.
4.
5.
6.
3. _____________ and ________________, the posterior pituitary hormones, are synthe-
sized in the ____________ and _______________ nuclei of the hypothalamus. They
4. In negative feedback, the target hormone feeds back to alter the release of the ante-
rior or hypothalamic hormones, thus (increasing or decreasing) its own release.
5. Give an example of a hormone that has negative feedback mainly to the anterior
6. Prolactin is unique in that the main ventral hypothalamic hormone regulating its
7. _________ hormones are necessary for the release of __________ hormone. This is
an example of modulation of a hormone by a target hormone of another series.
8. Suckling of an infant causes milk letdown by stimulating what hormone?
9. Cortisol release is synchronized by the light/dark cycle and has a 24-hour pattern of
secretion known as a _____________ rhythm. Levels are highest at what part of the
day? ___________
10. Besides controlling levels of T
3
and T
4
, TSH also promotes __________ of the thy-
11. T
3
and T
4
enter the target cells by __________ and bind to receptors located
______________. T
3
and T
4
are synthesized from ___________ and __________.
14. Graves’ disease is the most common cause of primary ___________________. The
Endocrine System:
Response to Stress
1. What two body systems work together to provide well-coordinated, generalized,
nonspecific responses to combat stress? _______________ and _____________
3. In the nervous system’s response to stress, ____________ and _____________ exert
many effects on the body. Choose the correct response in the pairs listed.
4. In response to stress, the hypothalamus increases the release of CRH, which
5. Cortisol enhances ____________________ (in vessels) to help maintain blood
pressure and also (increases or inhibits) the inflammation and immune response.
7. ____________ (posterior pituitary hormone) also aids in the stress response by pro-
moting water retention and at high levels it is also a potent _______________. Both
of these hormones help maintain blood pressure.
8. Epinephrine is a (lipophilic or hydrophilic) hormone. Thus it (does or does not)
9. _______________ is a condition in which there is hypersecretion of catecholamines
by a tumor in the adrenal medulla. Which of the following symptoms would be
present in a patient with this condition?
10. Cortisol is a (lipophilic or hydrophilic) hormone. Thus it (does or does not) require
11. Hypercortisolism is better known as ___________ __________, which is due to a
hypersecreting tumor in the anterior pituitary. What hormone is being
12. Primary adrenal insufficiency is better known as __________ _______. What two
hormones are deficient? _____________ and _______________
14. The following symptoms would be characteristic of which disease? ___________
high blood pressure, poor wound healing, and hyperglycemia
15. Classify the following as either part of the rapid response (R) to stress mediated by
the sympathetic nervous system or the prolonged (P) response of the endocrine
system:
Digestive System:
Anatomy Review
1. List two main divisions of the digestive system.
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. Label the diagram below with the four main layers you listed in question 2.
4. The mucosa includes a type of columnar ________that forms the inner lining of the
lumen.
6. The smooth muscle layer of the mucosa is called the ________ _______.
10. Label the vessels you listed in question 9 in the diagram below.
12. The built-in (intrinsic) network of nerve cells in the submucosa is the ______
______.
14. The network of neurons in between the two muscle layers of the muscularis
externa is the ___________ ___________.
16. List the four regions of the stomach:
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. _____________________
4. _____________________
18. Label the three sheets of muscle in the stomach’s muscularis externa in the
diagram below.
20. From largest to smallest, list the three modifications of the small intestine’s inner
wall that function to increase surface area:
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. _____________________
22. The microvilli of the small intestine’s epithelial cells form the ______ border.
23. The large intestine absorbs __________, __________, and ___________.
26. List the six sphincters of the digestive tract:
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. _____________________
4. _____________________
5. _____________________
6. _____________________
Digestive System:
Control of the Digestive System
1. List the primary two mechanisms that control the motility and secretion of the
digestive system.
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. The ___________ nerve triggers the responses during the cephalic phase of
digestion.
6. The small intestine typically________.
7. The ____________ and _________ ____________ nerves carry parasympathetic
impulses to the enteric nervous system.
8. Sympathetic NS innervation of the digestive tract is via ____________ fibers.
10. Digestive system reflexes that involve the brain are called ______ _______.
11. A meal consisting largely of fatty foods will take __________ to digest than a meal
consisting mainly of starchy foods.
12. All preganglionic ANS fibers release _______, while only postganglionic fibers of the
sympathetic division release _________.
13. Which of the following neurotransmitters stimulates smooth muscle contraction in
the digestive tract?
14. ______ slow intestinal motility and cause the pyloric sphincter to contract.
15. List five peptide hormones of the GI tract:
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
17. Secretin stimulates gastric HCl secretion.
18. GIP stimulates the pancreas to secrete_________.
20. _______ occurs when the combined action of two hormones is greater than the sum
of their individual effects.
Digestive System:
Motility
1. The process by which food is received into the GI tract via the mouth is called
_____________________.
2. The esophagus is digestive in function.
3. Swallowing has both voluntary and involuntary components.
4. The function of the epiglottis is to prevent a bolus from entering the _____.
5. The first wave of contraction of the esophageal muscles is called ______ ______.
7. Peristaltic contractions of the stomach occur about _____ times per minute when
food makes it into the body and fundus.
9. Gastric emptying would be slowed by which of the following?
10. ______ regulate gastric juice secretion during the cephalic phase.
12. The cephalic phase of digestion is regulated by short reflexes.
13. The _______ nerve carries electrical signals from the brain to the stomach.
15. Gastric motility ________ as the stomach begins to receive food.
17. The hormone _______ causes the gallbladder to contract and release bile into the
small intestine.
19. Sympathetic nervous system stimulation ________ digestive system activity.
20. The motility process illustrated below is _________.
21. Segmentation moves chyme in only one direction.
22. The frequency of segmentation contractions is greatest in the _____.
23. _____ reflexes stimulate the ileum to increase activity when food is in the stomach.
26. Migrating motility complexes are controlled by the central nervous system.
a. True
b. False
27. List the two major functions of the large intestine:
1. _______________________
2. _______________________
29. Sustained, intense propulsive peristaltic contractions of the large intestine are
called __________ ___________.
32. Place the following labels on the large intestine figure below:
cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon,
rectum, haustra, appendix
33. The ________ reflex stimulates mass movements of the colon.
34. The vomiting reflex is coordinated in the ___________ ___________.
35. Which of the following is not typically a stimulus for the vomiting reflex?
Digestive System:
Secretion
1. Of the approximately 9.0 L of fluids contained in the digestive tract daily, only
__________ L are eliminated with the feces.
3. Label the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual salivary glands in the figure below:
5. Parasympathetic innervation to the salivary glands is transmitted by cranial nerves
number _______ and _______.