Chapter Eight
Ethical Considerations: Changing Behavior
Overview
Cleveland, H. “The Limits of Cultural Diversity” (pp. 401-404).
According to the author, increased cultural diversity often leads to increased intergroup conflict.
Kim, Y. “Intercultural Personhood: An Integration of Eastern and Western Perspectives” (pp. 405-417).
In this essay, Kim proposes the concept of intercultural personhood, which involves an individual
Evanoff, R. “A Communicative Approach to Intercultural Dialogue on Ethics” (pp. 417-
421).
In a brief review of empirical, theoretical, and normative approaches to ethics, the author
Kale, D. “Peace as an Ethic for Intercultural Communication” (pp. 422-426).
Kale presents a definition of communication ethics, followed by a discussion of cultural
– Chapter Eight –
Outline
I. THE LIMITS OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY (Cleveland)
a. The triple dilemma, or “trilemma”: The mutually damaging collision of individual human rights,
cultural human diversity, and global human opportunities.
i. Africa 1994 – ethnic mass murder by machete
ii. Ex-Yugoslavia
iii. Is cultural diversity being used an instrument of repression, exclusion, and extinction?
b. An excess of cultural identity
i. Ethnic nations, fragmented faiths, transnational businesses, and professional groups
ii. Symbolic caricatures
iii. Societies based on fear of outsiders tend toward totalitarianism
1. Fear pushes the culture beyond normal limits on individuals’ behavior
3. The ultimate consequence of “cultural identity” is Hutus and Tutsis murdering each
other
5. Ethnic purity isn’t going to happen, even by forcible means
iv. Culture continually redefined
2. When members of a group, insisting on their right to be different succeeds,
3. Traditions of separateness and discrimination are often present, but they are never
permanent or immutable
4. Is it possible to retain cultural richness without cultural dominance?
c. Culture and civilizations
i. Management culture
ii. If civilization is universal, culture is the substance and symbol of society
iii. Civilization is rooted in compromise
iv. Civilization will be built by cooperation and compassion, in a social climate in which people
in differing groups can deal with each other in ways that respect cultural differences
d. Lessons from American experience
i. Diversity cannot be governed by drowning it in “integrations”
ii. Hawaii, where everyone is a minority—tolerance exists not despite diversity but because
of it
iii. Hawaii’s main ethnic groups managed to establish the right to be separate
1. Group separateness in turn helped establish the rights of individuals in each group
establish equality of members of groups and racial aspects, and ethnic origin, and
cultural heritage
iv. Waves of new Americans learned to tolerate each other… first as groups, only thereafter
as individuals
1. Equality is not the product of similarity but the cheerful acknowledgement of
difference
v. But Americans are still searching for the Holy Grail of cultural diversity
II. INTERCULTURAL PERSONHOOD: AN INTEGRATION OF EASTERN AND WESTERN
PERSPECTIVES (Kim)
a. “Intercultural personhood”: A way of life in which an individual develops an identity and a
definition of self that integrates, rather than separates, humanity. Intercultural personhood
projects a kind of human development that is open to growth—a growth beyond the perimeters of
one’s own cultural upbringing (p. 405).
b. Eastern and Western cultural traditions
i. Universe and nature
2. Eastern worldview conceptualizes the universe as a vast, living organism comprised
ii. Knowledge
1. The Eastern view emphasizes perceiving and knowing things synthetically rather than
2. The Western view contains a fundamental dichotomy between the knower and the
things to be known; emphasis on rationality
iii. Time
2. The Western conceptualization of time is linear; monochronic time orientation
iv. Communication
1. Eastern traditions of immutable social order, hierarchy, the view of individuals and
2. Western traditions of the autonomous individual with strong ego identification,
egalitarian interpersonal relationships, valuing individuality
3. These cultural values cause people from Eastern traditions to rely on subtle nonverbal
4. Western traditions rely on direct, explicit verbal communication, relying on logic and
rational thinking, and inner feelings should be honestly verbalized and discussed
5. High context Eastern cultures versus low context Western cultures
c. Beyond cultural differences
i. The Eastern and Western worldviews affect the individual’s conception of self, the other,
and the group
ii. Each cultural approach has strengths and weaknesses
2. The Eastern worldview has maintained close relationships between self, others, and
3. The Western worldview also has a tendency to consider any views not founded on
logic as invalid, which has been criticized by scholars
iii. Incorporating the two approaches can bring Western culture a higher sense of freedom,
and a greater awareness of the aliveness and wholeness of the universe
iv. Eastern and Western worldviews are not necessarily competitive, but complementary
v. The goal is not to create a homogenous mass, but to become an ever diverse and yet
organic whole
d. Emergence of intercultural personhood
i. Identity transformation
ii. An illustration
1. The paintings of artist C. Meng
3. The writings of Muneo Yoshikawa
4. In becoming intercultural, we can rise above our childhood culture and attain a wider
circle of identification, which endows us with a special kind of freedom and creativity
III. A COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH TO INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE ON ETHICS
(Evanoff)
a. Introduction
i. Empirical, theoretical, and normative approaches to ethics
2. Normative approaches involve imagining creative solutions to problems rather than
simply describing or analyzing existing values and norms
ii. The problem for intercultural ethics is how normative solutions can be arrived at across
cultures
b. Traditional approaches to intercultural ethics
i. Universalist
1. Ground ethics variously in religion, nature, history, reason, etc.
3. Universalists tend to view their own particular culture as universal
4. Associated with objective, foundational approaches to ethics as well as to
modernism, globalization, and a unilinear model of cultural development
ii. Particularist
2. Particularists relativize values and norms to particular groups
a. Ethical individualism contends that individuals are the final arbiters of value
3. Particularism is associated with subjective, skeptical approaches to ethics, as well as
postmodernism, the preservation of local cultures and ethnic identities, and a
multilinear model of cultural development
c. Cultural relativity argues that cultures are different, whereas cultural relativism refers to the value
judgment that different cultures should be accepted as they are
i. Descriptive ethics (what is actually done) cannot be equated with normative ethics (what
should be done)
1. The naturalistic fallacy – the attempt to derive an ought from an is
ii. Relativism offers no solutions to cultural conflict
2. Obligates us to accept the values and norms of other cultures without critical
evaluation
d. A communicative approach to ethics
i. A viable alternative to particularism and universalism
1. While each person is situated in a particular culture and socialized into certain norms,
people are nonetheless able to reflect on those norms and change them if necessary
c. Although conflict can be widened to include more than one culture, there are no
universals
ii. Relational
1. Individuals have relationships with others in society
3. Micro, Meso, and Macro domains
5. The principle for deciding the level at which norms should be created is related to the
1. Concerned with solving particular problems faced by particular groups of people in
particular situations
e. A communicative approach to cross-cultural dialogue
i. Intercultural situations are by their nature very anomic – without law
1. Avoidance – avoid having contact with people from other cultures
3. Confrontation – each side insists that it alone is right
4. Dialogue – the two sides can communicate with each other about which norms
should be adopted in a particular situation
f. Approaches to dialogue
i. Ethnocentric approaches – correct or incorrect
1. Dialectical, or Hegelian approach – positive or negative; it should be possible to
IV. PEACE AS AN ETHIC FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION (Kale)
a. A definition of communication ethics
i. We are dealing with an ethical issue in communication when:
2. The strategy is based on value judgment
4. The chosen strategy could positively or negatively affect someone else
ii. We have problems because some people think they can decide right and wrong for
themselves without regard for what other people think
iii. But ethics are based on values, and values are determined by culture, so there can be no
truly individual system of ethics
iv. There is no fixed order of values in human cultures because cultures are in constant
change
b. Cultural relativism versus universal ethics
i. Cultural relativity suggests that a person in one culture cannot question the values of
another culture
ii. However, questioning is appropriate in some cases, such as when it is motivated by
concern for human life, the environment, etc.
c. Spirit as the basis for ethical universals
i. The human spirit is a concept upon which we can base a universal code of ethics since all
cultures have it in common
ii. The guiding principle of any code of ethics must be the preservation of the worth and
dignity of the human spirit
d. Peace as the fundamental human value
i. Minimal peace: Merely the absence of conflict
ii. Moderate peace: Two conflicting parties are willing to compromise on the goals they want
to achieve
iii. Optimal peace: Two parties consider each other’s goals as seriously as they do their own
e. A universal code of ethics in intercultural communication
i. Principle #1: Ethical communicators address people of other cultures with the same
respect that they would like to receive themselves
ii. Principle #2: Ethical communicators seek to describe the world as they perceive it as
accurately as possible
iii. Principle #3: Ethical communicators encourage people of other cultures to express
themselves in their uniqueness
iv. Principle #4: Ethical communicators strive for identification with people of other cultures
– Chapter Eight –
Discussion Ideas
Concepts & Questions from “The Limits of Cultural Diversity” (Cleveland, pp. 401-404):
1. What does Cleveland mean when he speaks of making diversity safe?
2. What does Cleveland imply when he refers to “an excess of cultural identity”?
3. How does loyalty to one’s own cultural identity make it difficult to be tolerant of others?
4. What is meant by the term cultural over enthusiasm? How does it affect intercultural relations?
5. How does Cleveland differentiate between the concepts of culture and civilization?
6. What are the hallmarks of civilization? How can they be maintained?
7. What does Cleveland imply when he states that diversity cannot be governed by drowning it in
integration?
8. What does Cleveland mean when he argues that there are limits to diversity?
Concepts & Questions from “Intercultural Personhood: An Integration of Eastern and Western
Perspectives” (Kim, pp. 405-417):
1. What is meant by the term “intercultural personhood”?
2. How do Eastern and Western teachings about humankind’s relationship to the nature of the
universe differ?
3. In what major ways do Eastern and Western approaches to knowledge differ?
4. How do Eastern time orientations differ from those found in the West?
5. How do differences in Eastern and Western views of self and identity affect intercultural
communication?
6. What are the major differences between Eastern and Western modes of communication?
7. What strengths and weaknesses are found in Eastern and Western worldviews?
8. How could an integration of Eastern and Western perspectives benefit both Eastern and Western
cultural life?
9. What conditions are required for the emergence of intercultural personhood?
10. What benefits accrue to both society and the individual from the development of an intercultural
personhood perspective?
Concepts & Questions from “A Cumulative Approach to Intercultural Ethics” (Evanoff, pp. 417-421):
1. Differentiate between empirical, theoretical, and normative methodological approaches to solve
problems in intercultural ethics. How do their methodologies differ?
2. Evanoff asserts that attempts to ground ethics variously in religion, nature, history, or reason
largely fail. Why is this?
3. What is the fundamental assumption of the particularist approach to intercultural ethics?
4. How does Evanoff differentiate between cultural relativity and cultural relativism? Give an
example of each of these approaches to ethics.
5. How does a communicative approach to intercultural ethics differ from earlier approaches?
6. Evanoff suggests that ethical dialogue can take place at a variety of levels: the interpersonal, the
Concepts & Questions from “Peace as an Ethic for Intercultural Communication” (Kale, pp. 422-426):
1. How do culturally different concepts of right and wrong affect intercultural communication?
2. What conditions constitute an ethical issue in human communication?
3. Why does Kale suggest that there can be no such thing as a totally individual system of ethics?
4. Given the cultural relativity of ethics, under what conditions is it permissible for people of one
culture to attempt to persuade people of other cultures to accept their values?
5. How may the human spirit serve as a basis for a universal ethic?
6. What is minimal peace? How does it differ from moderate peace?
– Chapter Eight –
Exercises
Exercise 8.1: Cultural Universals
This activity can be used with Cleveland’s article on cultural diversity and asks the students to think
seriously about the growing diversity in the United States as well as the idea of “wholeness incorporating
diversity.” Divide students into small groups and have them reread the following excerpt from
Cleveland’s article:
… civilization is what’s universal—values, ideas, and practices that are in general
Exercise 8.2: The East-West Game
This activity is an accompaniment for Kim’s article on intercultural personhood or combining key
attributes of the East and West. The East-West Game was originally entitled “The Emperor’s Pot” and
first developed by Donald Batchelder of Experiment in International Living (Hoopes & Ventura, 1979). It
This activity is most useful when conducted over two or three class sessions. The exercise has been
adapted to accommodate the university classroom and allow all participants to either watch or take part in
the entire process. There are four phases in the activity:
Phase I: Students are divided into two groups and given time to “adopt” their new culture and plan
Questions to stimulate discussion during the debriefing afterward:
1. What cultural traits characterized your culture?
2. What traits did you notice in the other culture?
3. How difficult was it to put on another culture?
4. How did your own individual and cultural traits prevent you from fully adopting the East or West
culture?
5. How did you plan your approach to the negotiations?
6. Did you attempt to determine how the other side might behave?
7. Were your assumptions correct?
8. Did you notice any differences in nonverbal behavior between the two groups? The use of verbal
language?
9. During the negotiations, when did you first notice that there might be a problem?
10. What barriers caused this problem?
11. Was this barrier broken and productive negotiations allowed to continue?
12. What strategies were used to be culturally sensitive?
13. What strategies were used to get the artifact or keep it from the other team?
14. How could the negotiations have been more successful?
Instructions for the East
Your group represents an ancient Eastern culture that, although poor, is very proud of its long history and
heritage. You have a highly treasured artifact that is as old as 400 AD. It is the national treasure and
culturally you cannot give it up. The West wants this artifact and has been strongly pressured to return
with it. (You may wish to identify a single behavior demonstrated by the West that will win them the
artifact.)
What complicates these negotiations is that you come from a culture that is very agreeable, polite,
and always seeking to answer in the affirmative whether you mean “yes” or not. You never state anything
as flatly negative during negotiation sessions. You never tell your opposing team that they will never get
Eastern Roles:
Chief Spokesman, Minister of Education and Culture, Security Officer, Political Officer, Protocol Officer,
Information Officer, Recorder (to list all the assumptions, values, etc., of other side), Time-keeper (to
Cultural Traits:
“We”: The group is most highly valued, not the individual; individual always in social role; cannot do
anything to conflict with group.
Form: Outward form is most important. Manners extremely important, must participate in activities
considered important by group, even if one disagrees.
Nature: Conformity to the rules of nature is best.
Progress: Change is both negative and positive. Technical change is necessary; social change is bad.
Efficiency: Considered less important than higher values such as form, saving face, conformity to
custom.
Instructions for the West
Your group represents a Western culture that is rich and powerful. There is a highly treasured
artifact in the possession of the East that is a highly valued part of their heritage. They are a poor country
but will be very reluctant to give up the artifact. Your national museum and your government have
strongly urged you to get the artifact at any cost. Money is no problem. You cannot come out and say
that you will get the artifact at any cost because the East is world renowned as shrewd traders. But you
believe that every person has his/her price.
Western Roles:
Curator of National Museum (expert on Oriental Art); Millionaire (major donator of museum);
Diplomatic Officer; Public Relations man or woman; CIA agent posing as an Area Studies Specialist;
Cultural Traits:
“I”: Ego-centric.
Individualism: Self-reliance and initiative expected from other side. Status achieved from own efforts.
Achievement is good and requires competitiveness. Competition is expected.
Social Conformity: Outward conformity to opinions of others has certain value.
Activism: Being active and “on top of things,” especially when uncertain, is a virtue. Achievement and
goal-oriented activities stressed.
Pragmatism: Practical ingenuity applied to social and materialistic problems.
Progress: Change in itself is good. Humans must work to control nature.
Efficiency: Social organizations and individuals must be efficient.
Time: Precisely measured and must be used productively and efficiently.
Exercise 8.3: What if …
We know that how we react to people is based on how we perceive them and their actions. Our world is
based on our perceptions of others and their perceptions of us. Oftentimes, these perceptions are not
based on personal information about others as individuals but on cultural information gleaned from the
media, family, and friends. That is, we use previously gathered information from a variety of sources to
perceive and understand new people that we meet.
How might your relationship be affected if . . .
1. . . . your spouse believed in reincarnation and karma?
2. . . . your friend believed that all events in the world are determined by fate?
3. . . . your friend believed that certain ethnic or racial groups are intellectually inferior?
4. . . . your significant other believed that women are superior to men? That men were superior to
women?
5. . . . your roommates believed that the rights of groups are more important than those of the
individual? The rights of the individual are more important than those of the group?
6. . . . a new friend believed adamantly that homosexuality is immoral and should not be accepted
by society as normal? That homosexuality is moral and should be accepted?
7. . . . your neighbor believed in using only traditional medicine and spiritual healing whenever she
or her family became ill?
Exercise 8.4: “Mom and Dad, Guess What…?”
Students may experience or have experienced forming an intimate relationship with someone of whom
their family and friends disapproved, or may have a friend or relative who has had this experience. Such
situations often occur because our family and friends have certain expectations about who is an
appropriate dating or marriage partner. These expectations are firmly entrenched in our perceptions of
people who are different from us and in cultural norms of relationship development and sexual behavior.
Our families can have a profound impact on the development and success of our romantic relationships.
Your Parents
Think about your parents’ attitudes about marriage, relationships, and cultural differences. How would
they react if you told them you were going to marry someone who:
1. had a disability?
2. was of a different religion?
3. was of a different ethnicity?
4. was of the same sex?
You as a Parent
Now take on the role of the parent. How would you react if your child told you he or she was going to
marry someone who:
1. had a disability? Why would you react this way?
2. was of a different religion? Why would you react this way?
3. was of a different ethnicity? Why would you react this way?
4. was of the same sex? Why would you react this way?
Analysis of Your Responses
1. What differences do you see between your responses and what you believe would be your
parents’ responses?
2. What is acceptable today that was not in the 1970s, 1980s, or 1990s? What attitudes have largely
not changed very much at all?
– Chapter Eight –
Popular Film Suggestions
• James’ Journey to Jerusalem (2003; director, Ra’anan Alexandrowicz; 87 min; English, Zulu &
Hebrew w/ English subtitles)
“A cannily droll mix of social commentary and modern fairy tale, Israeli filmmaker Ra’anan
Alexandrowicz’s debut feature follows the adventures of James, a devout Christian making a
pilgrimage from his African village to the Holy Land. He becomes part of the migrant labor
• Wedding in Galilee (Israel, 1985; director, Michel Khleifi; 113 min.; Arabic and Hebrew with
English subtitles): A Palestinian seeks Israeli permission to waive curfew to give his son a fine
wedding. The military governor’s condition is that he and his officers attend. The groom berates
his father for agreeing. Women ritually prepare the bride; men prepare the groom. Guests gather.
The Arab youths plot violence. One Israeli officer swoons in the heat and Arab women take her