Performing Arts Chapter 7 Seven Communicating Interculturally Becoming Competent Overview Spitzberg Model Intercultural Communication Competence

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Chapter Seven

Communicating Interculturally: Becoming Competent

Overview

Spitzberg, B. “A Model of Intercultural Communication Competence” (pp. 343-355).

Ting-Toomey, S. “Managing Intercultural Conflicts Effectively” (pp. 355-367):

Collier, M. “Understanding Cultural Identities in Intercultural Communication: A Ten–Step Inventory”

(pp. 367-384).

The author of this essay describes ten steps that can be used to guide a study of intercultural

communication. The steps involve questions that the researcher needs to ask him/herself during

Kim, Y. “Adapting to a New Culture” (pp. 385-397).

How people adapt to a new culture and communication system is the focus of this essay. The

roles of stress and communication in the acculturation process are discussed, as well as an

account of how both external (environmental) and internal factors affect cross-cultural adaptation.

– Chapter Seven –

Outline

I. A MODEL OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE (Spitzberg)

a. Introduction

i. Intercultural communication competence: An impression that behavior is appropriate and

effective in a given context (p. 343)

2. Effectiveness: The accomplishment of valued goals or rewards relative to costs

and alternatives (p. 343)

b. A model of intercultural competence

i. An integrative model should include three levels of analysis

1. The individual system: Individual characteristics that that facilitate competent

interactions

3. The relational system: Components that help a person’s competence across an

entire relationship rather than just single episodes of interaction

c. Individual system

i. As communicator motivation increases, communicative competence increases

1. As communicator confidence increases, communicator motivation increases

3. As communicator approach dispositions increase, communicator motivations

increase

4. As the relative cost-benefit ratio of a situation increases, communicator

motivation increases

ii. As communicative knowledge increases, communicative competence increases

2. As mastery of knowledge acquisition strategies increase, communicator

knowledge increases

4. As knowledge dispositions increase, communication knowledge increases

iii. As communicator skills increase, communicator competence increases

2. As conversational coordination increases, communicator skill increases

4. As conversational expressiveness increases, communicator skill increases

5. As conversational adaptation increases, communicator skill increases

d. Episodic system

i. As actor’s communicative status increases, co–actor’s impression of actor’s competence

increases

2. As contextual obstruction of actor’s performance increases, co–actor’s

impression of actors competence increases

4. As actor’s extant attributed communicative status increases, co–actor’s

impression of actor status increases

ii. Co–actor’s impression of actor’s competence is a function of actor’s fulfillment of co-

actor’s expectancies

1. As actor’s fulfillment of positive co-actor expectancies increases, co-actor’s

impression of actor’s competence increases

3. As actor’s fulfillment of co–actor’s competence prototype expectancies

increases, co-actor’s impression of actor’s competence increases

5. As actor’s normative compensation of power relations increases, the more co–

actor’s impression of actor’s competence increases

e. Relational system

i. As mutual fulfillment of autonomy and intimacy needs increases, relational competence

increases

f. Conclusions

II. MANAGING INTERCULTURAL CONFLICTS EFFECTIVELY (Ting-Toomey)

a. A cultural variability perspective

i. Individualism-collectivism tendencies

1. The individualistic independent construal of self and the collectivist

1. “…low-context communication refers to communication patterns of a linear

2. “High-context communication refers to communication patterns of a spiral

1. M-time: Monochronic time schedule

2. P-time: Polychronic time schedule

b. Violations of conflict expectations

i. Cultural conflict assumptions

2. For collectivistic, HC communicators, conflict follows a “face maintenance”

model

ii. Conflict issues and process violations

1. Collectivists prefer to use a conflict mediator who is older and related to both

2. Power in individualist cultures usually means tangible resources of rewards

3. Individualistic, M-time people think conflict resolution processes should

follow a clear agenda; for collectivist, P-time people, conflict resolution has

no clear beginning or end

iii. Cross-cultural conflict interaction styles

1. Individualistic, LC cultures prefer direct conflict style, use of the equity

norm, and direct settlement of disputes

2. Collectivistic, HC cultures prefer indirect conflict style, use of the equality

c. Effective conflict management

i. Suggestions for individualists

2. Be proactive about minor conflicts before they become major

4. Be sensitive to the importance of mindful observation

6. Don’t rely on the Western model of effective communication

7. Don’t force others to deal directly with conflicts

ii. Suggestions for collectivists

1. Be mindful of problem-solving assumptions

3. Be assertive

5. Be an active listener

7. Commit to working out the conflict situation with the conflict party

III. UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL IDENTITIES IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: A

TEN-STEP INVENTORY (Collier)

a. Request to engage the dialogue

b. A ten-step inventory

i. The steps in this process of understanding and critically evaluating diverse

intercultural situations are a series of related but not necessarily sequential questions

c. Step 1: What do I believe about communication and culture?

i. Approaches to culture

1. Culture as place

3. Culture as art and artifact

5. Culture as product

7. Culture as psychology, worldview, or style of thinking and speaking

9. Culture as group identity

ii. Culture and the campus problem

1. The debate over the necessity of campus cultural centers and programs

d. Step 2: What intercultural communication question do I want to answer?

i. Narrow your interests to a question you can answer through your analysis of

communication

e. Step 3: What cultural identity issues are relevant?

i. Multiple cultural identity types (CITs)

2. Sex and gender

4. Geographic area

6. Physical ability and disability

ii. Cultural identification as constituted in communication

1. Cultural identities are negotiated, reinforced, and challenged through

communication

iii. Multivocality and interpellated cultural identities

1. Each person has multiple identities and voices and belongs to multiple

cultures

iv. Avowal and ascription processes

2. Ascription: The cultural identities that are attributed to people by others

v. Salience and intensity differences

1. Different aspects of our cultural identities are more salient or intense in

different contexts

vi. Enduring and changing property of identity

1. Cultural identities both endure and change over time

f. Step 4: What is the role of power and ideology?

g. Step 5: What are the intergroup and interpersonal relationship processes?

h. Step 6: What kinds of communicative messages should I examine in my study?

i. Form and function of discourse texts

ii. Message patterns and themes

iii. Modes of expression: Labels and norms

iv. Affective, cognitive, and spiritual components

i. Step 7: What is the context of the intercultural problem?

j. Step 8: What perspectives and procedures should I use to study the data?

i. Epistemological perspectives

ii. Positivist and objectivist perspectives

iv. Interpretive and reconstructive perspectives

v. Researcher perspective

2. Relational point of view

3. Communal point of view

k. Step 9: What are my preliminary and alternative interpretations and conclusions?

l. Step 10: How can I apply my interpretations?

m. Conclusions

IV. ADAPTING TO A NEW CULTURE (Kim)

a. Stress, adaptation, and growth

i. Acculturation: Learning new ways of thinking, feeling, and acting (p. 385)

b. The role of communication

i. Personal communication

1. Host communication competence: The overall internal capacity of a stranger

2. Cognitive competence: Knowledge of the host language and culture,

3. Affective competence: Provides the emotional and aesthetic sensibilities that

4. Operational competence: Strangers’ capacity to express their cognitive and

affective experiences outwardly when communicating with others (p. 388)

ii. Social communication

2. Mass communication: Public media

c. The role of the environment

i. Host receptivity

1. The degree to which the environment welcomes strangers

ii. Host conformity pressure

1. The extent to which natives exert pressure on strangers to conform

iii. Ethnic group strength

d. The role of predisposition

i. Preparedness

1. Readiness for dealing with the new environment

ii. Ethnicity

iii. Personality

1. Openness

3. Positivity

e. Summary and integration

– Chapter Seven –

Discussion Ideas

Concepts & Questions from “A Model of Intercultural Communication Competence” (Spitzberg, pp. 343-

355):

1. What does Spitzberg mean when he says intercultural competence must be viewed as the social

evaluation of behavior?

2. What are the individual, episodic, and relational systems of analysis?

3. What is the relationship between communicator motivation and intercultural communication

competence?

4. What is communicator approach disposition? How is it related to intercultural communication

competence?

5. What is task-relevant procedural knowledge, and how does it relate to communication competence?

6. What are valued outcomes, and how do they affect the entire communication encounter?

Concepts & Questions from “Managing Intercultural Conflicts Effectively” (Ting-Toomey, pp. 355-367):

1. How does Ting-Toomey define conflict?

2. In what way does the cultural socialization process relate to different forms of intercultural

conflicts?

3. From the perspective of intercultural conflict, how may in-group and out-group differences

contribute to such conflict?

4. How can differences between high- and low-context cultures contribute to intercultural conflict?

5. How can an awareness of expectations help mediate intercultural conflict?

6. How do differences along the individualistic–collectivist scale of cultural differences contribute to

intercultural conflict? What would you suggest to minimize these influences?

Concepts & Questions from “Understanding Cultural Identities in Intercultural Communication: A Ten–

Step Inventory” (Collier, pp. 367-384):

1. What is the central purpose of the “series of steps” presented by Collier?

2. Which one of Collier’s “approaches to culture” do you believe most directly relates to intercultural

communication?

3. How would you answer the following question: What do I want to know about the communicative

event, contact, discourse, text, and situation?

4. What does Collier mean by the phrase “multiple types of cultural identities”?

5. Why is power an important variable in intercultural communication?

Concepts & Questions from “Adapting to a New Culture” (Kim, pp. 385-397):

1. What does Kim mean when, speaking of new immigrants and refugees, she states that they are like

“pioneers”?

2. What are some “defense mechanisms” immigrants and refugees employ as a way of coping?

3. How would you explain the idea that stress is part of the adaptation process?

4. Why do some “individual strangers” adapt faster than others?

5. What does Kim mean when she writes of “cognitive complexity”?

8. What happens when “strangers” arrive with unrealistic expectations regarding the host culture?

9. Does Kim believe that “strangers” can accomplish their adaptation process alone? If not, why not?

– Chapter Seven –

Exercises

Exercise 7.1: Improving Ourselves

This activity focuses on the communicative behavior of students and, specifically, those aspects of their

behavior that they would like to change. This activity uses the concepts in Chapter 7 as a backdrop

1. Describe the communicative behavior that you would like to change.

2. Give one example when you communicated in this way. Include the other interactant’s response

to your behavior.

3. What strategy can you think of that will remedy this behavior?

When students come to the following class period, ask them to break into small groups. Each group

member should share what he or she has written, ask the group for feedback about the strategy developed,

and solicit other possible strategies. Each student should walk away from his or her group with a list of

strategies. Regroup as a class and have students share some of their areas for change. The instructor

Engage the class in a discussion on how their specific communication problems might affect their ability

to be competent intercultural communicators. How might their behavior be perceived by individuals from

other cultures? How would working on this one communicative behavior enhance their effectiveness as

intercultural communicators? The discussion should begin to address the issue of becoming

Exercise 7.2: Developing Intercultural Relationships

At times the unfamiliar can excite us. If we knew everything about the people we formed relationships

with, there would be no surprises, nothing to uncover and explore. But too much unfamiliarity can be

unsettling. We like to have something we can be certain of in our relationships. At least in the initial

This exercise focuses on how we develop intercultural relationships and the attributes necessary for the

development of such relationships. It asks students to consider their own network of friends and the extent

Questions to Answer Individually

1. How many relationships (romantic partners and people you consider to be friends) with culturally

different people do you have? [Remember to consider relationships with people from different

2. Describe an intercultural relationship that you have with someone that you find to be very

satisfying. What makes it so satisfying?

Questions to Answer in Small Groups

4. List five reasons why people are hesitant to develop relationships (platonic or romantic) with

people from other cultures.

5. Which one of the above reasons pertains (if at all) most directly to you? Please explain your

6. Many intercultural communication specialists mention open-mindedness as one attribute

necessary for the development of successful intercultural relationships. What are some other

attributes or ways of thinking that a person should have in order to develop relationships with

culturally different people?

7. Which of the above do you feel you might need to develop further? Why did you choose these

attributes to work on?

Exercise 7.3: Individualism, Collectivism, Reward Distribution, and Conflict

This activity can be used to focus on managing intercultural conflicts effectively. One area that may result

in intercultural conflict is the area of reward distribution particularly when both collectivistic and

individualist cultures are involved. Ting-Toomey notes:

The following exercise was developed by R. W. Brislin (1994) and can be found in Improving

Intercultural Interactions: Modules for Cross-cultural Training. Consult this excellent reference book for

other appropriate exercises. Divide the students into two groups (one group will represent collectivists

and the other will represent individualists) and have the students read the case study below. After reading

the case study, have each group draft a distribution of money based on either their collectivist or

individualist tendencies. Then have the groups role-play a negotiation to resolve their distribution

differences utilizing conflict management strategies.

For discussion, Brislin (1994) provides the following explanation to accompany the exercise (handout

next page):

Individualists generally prefer an equity distribution, that is, rewards based on contributions. If

Person A contributed 40% of the work, he should receive approximately 40% of the rewards.

Other people should also receive rewards based on their contributions. Person E is not likely to

get much special attention from individualists in monetary terms. Instead, the team might name

Rewards Case Study (Brislin, 1994, pp. 80-81)

Assume that you are employed in a company (for profit) that contracts to do construction work (e.g.,

roads, sewage treatment facilities) in rural areas of the community where you live. The company recently

received a contract for $800,000 (U.S.) to build a road. Given a number of fortunate circumstances, such

as good weather, the project was completed for $700,000. It is now the end of the fiscal year and the

board of directors has decided that the extra $100,000 can be distributed the way people (who were

involved in the road construction project) decide. The following people are somehow involved. All have

been in the company for at least five years and get along well together

Person A was the hardest worker and was clearly responsible for supervising a great deal of the actual

day-to-day work on the project. At least 40% of the day-to-day work on the project was done by him.

Persons B, C, and D were solid but not spectacular contributors. They were competent workers but not

outstanding. Each contributed about 15% of the actual day-to-day work on the project.

Person E is a very high status and wealthy person in the organization and in the community. Although he

did not engage in any of day-to-day work on the road construction project and did not write the proposal

for funding, it is known within the organization that he called upon his connections and used his influence

Amount Explanation (Why?)

Person A ________ ________________________________________________

Person B ________ ________________________________________________

Person C ________ ________________________________________________

Person D ________ ________________________________________________

Person E ________ ________________________________________________

Person F ________ ________________________________________________

Exercise 7.4: Acculturation

This activity is related to sojourner adaptation and will allow students to experience vicariously the

1. What things have you done to help deal with the high level of uncertainty and anxiety in moving

to a new culture?

2. What cross-cultural challenges have you faced since moving to the United States?

3. Do you feel that your adaptation has been slow?

4. What do you miss most about your original culture?

5. Do you participate in a variety of social functions in the United States?

6. Are you in close contact with members of your own ethnicity here in the United States? How

large is this group?

7. Do you maintain ties with your original culture? How often?

8. Do you feel the U.S. culture has been receptive and welcoming?

Exercise 7.5: Intercultural Talk Journals

In order to understand how people from other cultures communicate interpersonally, it is useful to

actually engage in conversations with them. But talking is only the first step. Having students actively

reflecting on their experiences with culturally different people can help them make sense of what

happened, allow them to assess what they have learned, and make changes in their communication. This

activity is designed to give students more intercultural experiences and familiarity with other cultures.

Ask students to start a “talk” journal during the first weeks of the term. In this journal, they should

describe the interactions they have with people from different cultures and record some of their

perceptions and feelings experienced during these encounters. Students should be reminded that although

people may share their ethnic background, they may also be members of other cultures. Women, gays and

Suggested Topics for Talk Journal Entries

2. Where did you encounter people from different cultures?

3. Descriptions of the encounters.

4. How do the people you spoke with communicate? What is important in their lives?

5. How is their culture manifested in their behavior or communication?

6. Were your interpersonal contacts marked by any misunderstandings due to cultural differences?

9. How would you do things differently next time you talked with this person or another person

from the same cultural background?

Post-Talk Journal Questions

1. What did you learn about how people from other cultures communicate and interact

interpersonally?

2. What did you learn about yourself as an interpersonal communicator during intercultural

interactions? What kinds of feelings arose for you as you talked with these people?

Exercise 7.6: Metamessages and Intercultural Communication

Unless we tape record our conversations, it is almost impossible to hear how others hear us. We probably

have more knowledge about the content of our speech than about our ways of speaking. It is possible to

offend another person by the tone, volume, or even rate of our speech—and be oblivious to what we are

communicating. While we traditionally think of conflicts between people as disagreements over ideology

and perspective, conflicts can just as easily arise over how ideas are communicated. Such conflicts are

based on the metamessages—messages about one’s own communication—people send when they use a

Case Study

Carmina works in an office with five other people. Ever since her supervisor hired her, Carmina

has noticed that she talks much more slowly to her than to the native English speakers in the

office. Carmina’s first language is Spanish and she speaks flawless, accented English. Yet her

supervisor still speaks to her using simple language at a markedly slow rate. No other person in

the subject. After all, she is new to the office and doesn’t want to cause any problems—especially

between her supervisor and herself.

Questions for Students to Consider

1. Write down some reasons why the supervisor was using “special” English with Carmina. What

was she thinking? What might have been her intentions?

experiencing? Have you ever communicated with a nonnative speaker the way Carmina’s

supervisor did with her? Describe what happened in either situation.

6. Describe a situation when someone sent metamessages that you found condescending or

disrespectful. What happened and how did you handle the situation?

7. How can we let someone know that we find the way they are speaking to us offensive? Write

down a few strategies.

Stewart, J., & D’Angelo, G. (1988). Together: Communication interpersonally. (3rd ed.). New

York: Random House.

– Chapter Seven –

Popular Film Suggestions

• Lost in Translation (2003; director and screenplay, Sofia Coppola; 102 min)

A great film showing the difficulty experienced by U.S. American sojourners to Japan; nicely

illustrates many of the difficulties outlined in this chapter, especially Begley’s article. Kenneth

Tynan writes in The Los Angeles Times review of the movie that “As the title indicates, ‘Lost in

• My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002; director: Joel Zwick; screenplay: Nia Vardalos; length: 94

min). Film review by Frederic and Mary Ann Brussat: “Toula (Nia Vardalos) is a very unhappy

30-year-old single woman. She works at Dancing Zorba’s, the Chicago Greek restaurant owned

by her parents, Gus (Michael Constantine) and Maria (Lainie Kazan). She finds the love of all