Media Studies Chapter 8 Programs And Programming Basics Learning Objectives After Reading This Students

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CHAPTER 8

Programs and Programming Basics

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter students should be able to understand the following concepts:

Economic constraints: Understand ways commercial programmers find themselves constrained and

how they cope with limitations.

Scheduling practices: Comprehend programmers’ concerns for audience flow, and understand

scheduling strategies used by broadcast and cable networks and local outlets to maintain flow.

Local, syndicated, and network distribution paths: Understand the three primary ways programming is

distributed among electronic media. Identify what constitutes locally originating programming.

Understand how syndication works and how exclusive broadcast rights affects what viewers receive on

television. Discern similarities and differences in syndication among television, cable and radio.

Understand the differences between network and syndicated programs.

Creating entertainment, news, and sports content: Comprehend how broadcast and cable networks

obtain their programming, its costs, major production facilities, cable-only productions, and

co-productions. Discern how news and sports programs differ at network and local levels, and understand

how they are produced.

CHAPTER FOCUS

Chapter 8 is devoted to programming. The chapter begins with a discussion of economic constraints

under which programmers must operate and an examination of audience targeting. The disproportionate

80/20 principle can be applied to the electronic media market, individual stations or networks,

programming, and consumers’ media use behavior. The significance of the repeatability factor explains

the preponderance of repeats, reruns, formulaic programming, and the use of recorded music as a

programming staple for most radio stations.

Section 8.1 describes some key strategies of program scheduling. Students should be fascinated with the

material covered here. Terms such as counterprogramming, block programming, stripping, lead-ins and –

outs, hammocks, bridging, repeating, and stunting are covered here. These terms describe the strategies

used by all programmers whether they are in a local television station or at a major television or cable

network. Their objective, of course, is to maximize their audience. You may wish to discuss how

scheduling strategies differ for broadcast and cable networks, television stations and cable systems, and

how even local radio stations carefully design the placement of their programming parts, such as news

and commercial breaks.

Section 8.2 continues by describing the sources of programs and the differences between local, network

and syndicated distribution paths. Students who have never considered the source of programming may

be somewhat surprised that local television stations produce so little of their own programming. Possible

guest speakers would be a news director or a program director from a local television station who could

discuss her or his philosophy and principles of news and local programming as found in her or his

station’s line-up of programs.

Radio networks and syndicated programs have had a resurgence over the last three decades. Low-cost

satellite distribution has aided this revitalization. Talk shows, sports programming, features, 24-hour

music formats, and brief newscasts targeted at specific age groups make up these network offerings.

Local radio relies heavily on syndication, for recorded music, news-wire services, as well as features.

Radio automation breaks down distinctions between local and nonlocal programming. Radio format

syndication is described. The main point of this discussion of radio syndication is that it is alive and well

and used extensively in local radio programming. Invariably the majority of radio stations rely on some

type of radio syndication.

Television, cable, and radio networks use essentially the same business model for program distribution.

Stations affiliated with the network receive program content the network acquires or produces. The

difference between network and syndicated programming is discussed. Broadcast stations usually receive

network programming for free. A cable system pays a monthly fee to carry a cable network.

discussion. Of special interest are the popularity of cable sports networks and the move of major event

programming to pay cable.

Probably no television programming has been more analyzed, debated, and condemned than children’s

television programming. While we typically think of Saturday morning network cartoons or “Sesame

Street” when we consider children’s programming, several cable networks provide alternative children’s

programming throughout the day. They recognized a need for children’s programming and are now

responsible for providing most children’s programming to cable subscribers – a major selling point for

cable systems to families with young children. There have been changes with implementation of the

TERMS, CONCEPTS, AND EXERCISES

It’s Always About the Bottom Line

Terms: programming, “product,” narrowcasting, niche services, audience targeting, demographics,

psychographics, segmentation, economies of scale, 80/20 principle, channel repertoire, “long-tail” media

economics, zero sum market, first-run, rerun, dayparts, morning drive, midday, afternoon drive, night,

oDiscuss audience targeting and development of concepts of narrowcasting and niche services.

What are these terms, and how do they relate to delivery of product to specific audiences?

oWhy does radio use segmentation? Note how music formats that developed earlier are further

fragmented. Will this trend continue, or does some logical stopping point exist?

oDiscuss the 80/20 principle and provide additional examples of this principle in operation at over-

the-air networks, cable networks, local radio and television stations, and other media. Ask your

students to find other examples.

oExplain how media institutions take advantage of economies of scale. Is bigger always better?

oThe broadcast day is divided into discrete units for the purpose of scheduling and commercial

oOne way to introduce the concept of audience flow is to discuss our motivation for viewing

certain programs. All programs can be placed in one of three categories: those we make an effort

to view, those we make an effort to avoid, and those we view simply because we feel like

watching television. The vast majority of programs are in this last group. This is the gist of Paul

Reaching Audiences through Local, Syndicated, and Network Distribution Paths

Terms: local origination (LO), public-access, voice track, playlists, syndication, first-run syndication,

off-network syndication, runs, plays, episodes, exclusive broadcast rights, barter syndication, cash-barter,

audience composition, upgrading, downgrading, ratings threshold, revenue potential, barter avails,

oDiscuss when local news and locally produced public affairs programs are scheduled in your

market. Do stations compete head-on for local news audiences? For public affairs audiences?

What interesting local programs are produced in your market?

oDo local stations provide viewers with “updates”? If so, when? Are stations active in their

coverage of elections and other special information programs?

oWhat non-news, locally originated programs appear on television and cable? What local

origination and public access programming appear on local cable systems? Have students watch

these shows and comment on their quality and content. Have students produced their own access

programming? If so, ask them to discuss their experiences.

oDiscuss with students the role syndication plays in broadcast programming. Syndicated and local

programs fill a large portion of affiliate schedules and virtually all independent stations’

schedules. Some students find this concept difficult to understand primarily because they, as

oTell students how the growth of satellite communications has enhanced the ability of such

syndicated programs as Entertainment Tonight to be “timely.” Why couldn’t such a program have

been successful prior to the use of satellites for distribution of first-run syndicated programs?

oWhat does the term “barter” mean? How is it commonly used? How is it used to discuss the

method of payment to program syndicators? Discuss the benefits and disadvantages of a barter

arrangement. Discuss the different barter arrangements. Explain the factors stations must consider

when negotiating the purchase price of a syndicated program: the expected ratings and revenue

oDiscuss similarities among television, cable, and radio network programming. Explain the

differences between network and syndicated programming: advertising time is available to the

affiliate, scheduling flexibility, and compensation for programming.

oAsk students about their use of the Web. Have they sought further information from the Web for

a news story seen on television or heard on radio or to follow up on a television or radio

program/star? What types of original programming are available online? Have student mention

their favorite sites for podcasts, blogcasts, and user-generated content.

oDiscuss how deficit financing works and point out the importance of syndication for it is only

there that a producer can recoup the full cost of production.

oWhat are “windows of availability” (Exhibit 8.c), and how do they influence release of movies in

various media? Pick a movie from the early 2000s, and trace its release into these markets.

oEmphasize the changing nature of news production and delivery, especially the networks’ recent

willingness to use footage from sources other than their own facilities to cut costs. Footage from

affiliates and pool feeds comprise a lot of this material.

oDiscuss how CNN is able to provide round-the-clock news with more limited resources than the

commercial networks.

Types of Program Content

Terms: format, genre, infomercials, reality shows, infotainment, infomercials, series, miniseries,

situation comedies (sitcoms), dramedies, crime shows, medical dramas, movies, made-for-TV movies,

docudrama, made-for-cable movies, package, runs-per-title, music programs, format fragmentation, adult

contemporary (AC) music, contemporary hit radio (CHR) or Top 40, classic rock, oldies, urban

oYou may wish to have your students research major trends in television situation comedy. You

could explore the development of the various sub-classifications of this genre, such as the nuclear

family (Father Knows Best, Leave It to Beaver, Family Ties, The Cosby Show, Major Dad, Home

Improvement, Roseanne, The Simpsons, Married…with Children, Home Improvement); the

unconventional family (Kate and Allie, My Two Dads, Who’s the Boss, Frasier, Third Rock from

the Sun); the workplace comedy (The Mary Tyler Moore Show, M*A*S*H, Taxi, Cheers, Murphy

Brown, The Drew Carey Show, Just Shoot Me, Scrubs, The Office); etc. Such a presentation could

within formats, but Exhibit 8.e outlines the more popular formats. How are different formats

divided between AM and FM channels in your market? Once students have completed this

assignment, you can have a class session on the differences among radio formats, which formats

are found on AM and which on FM, and target audiences for each.

oHave students contrast programming on MTV with other music channels, such as VH1, CMT and

GAC. What differences and similarities exist?

oTrace the development of reality programming. What are the most popular types of reality

programming? Explain the popularity and success of reality programming.

oNote the enduring popularity of soap operas. Some early episodes of radio soaps are available on

oHow do public affairs programs differ from news? Why are all of the networks so concerned

about having a prime-time news magazine program on the air? To note the growing popularity of

news and information programs, have students trace the evolution of the genre and chronicle

developments.

oDiscuss which factors make sports ideal for television programs. Are viewers becoming

oversaturated with TV sports? What trends in sports coverage on broadcast networks have existed

over the last two decades? What effect has cable had on sports programming? How has television

actually changed the scheduling and playing of sports events? Are these changes a reasonable

price to pay for the tremendous financial support television provides? Who determines the

announcers for the coverage of events?

oHow does programming for children differ from programming in general? Note that children

Program Promotion and Brand Promotion

Terms: promos, voice-over announcements, teasers, generic promos, specific or episodic promos,

billboards, trade-outs, media branding

oAsk students to watch for on-air and print promotions for upcoming programs on local television

stations. What type of promo are they—generic or specific (episodic)? Have students give

examples of each in class.

oHave students collect print ads from stations and networks. Note that each network and station

strives for a unique visual look, including typeface style, heading, slug line and visual logo, so

that readers can identify the network (and local station) by the “look” of the ad.

oAlso, have students keep track of the total number of different programs advertised in a given

PEARSON MYCOMMUNICATIONKIT RESOURCES

Each chapter of the MyCommKit for Head’s Broadcasting in America, 10th Edition includes chapter

learning objectives, practice quizzes, key terms flash card, and select media.

Media available for this chapter:

OUTSIDE AUDIO/VISUAL RESOURCES

TV Newsroom: News Gathering (VHS, 12 min., 1991)

Follow the interlocking roles performed by the WHDH assignment editor, producers, news directors,

reporters, writers, and photographers as they shape decisions on what stories to cover and how to cover

TV Newsroom: News Production (VHS, 10 min., 1991)

The director, technical director, floor manager, and assistant director work under intense time pressure

with tape editors, camera operators, audio mixers, and engineers to bring in an evening newscast on time

What Is Sitcom? (VHS, 19 min., 1993)

From a ten-program series, “The Sitcom Seminars,” this overview defines the sitcom form and details the

essential ingredients of a good sitcom. A fundamental ingredient is emotional truth and honesty. Others in

Secrets of Effective Radio Advertising (VHS/Beta, 75 min., 1990)

Tony Schwartz believes one cannot fully understand electronic communications without fully

understanding the use of radio. Because it is less glamorous than television, its potential for persuasion is

often overlooked. Schwartz believes radio can be the medium of choice for advertising, politics, and

public interest groups, particularly those with specific messages and lean budgets. In this three-part

program, Schwartz compiles a veritable encyclopedia of radio messages that work—commercials and

The Rise of the Television Talk Show (VHS, 28 min., 1995)

Because of low production costs and high ratings, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of

television talk shows in recent years. This program looks at this phenomenon and the public’s fascination

with it. Distributor: Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

Signal to Noise: Life with Television (VHS, 3 prog./60 min. each, 1996)

These three videos help students think more critically about television and its impact on society.

“Watching TV Watching Us” explores the effects of television programming and advertising strategies.

“TV Reality?” considers how the profit motive conflicts with television’s role as an information provider.

Media Manipulation: New Game for Big Business (VHS, 30 min., 1998)

Many newspapers, magazines, television and cable networks, and local television and radio stations are

owned by large corporations with diverse interests outside their media holding—from the defense

Television Media: Headlines or Hype? (VHS, 30 min., 1998)

Most people rely on television newscasts to keep them informed. Yet a recent Gallup poll says that only

21 percent of Americans rated television media as “very or mostly honest.” Faced with declining ratings,

increased competition, and intensified attention to the bottom line, television news organizations have

Ratings Vs. Journalism: Going Live with Breaking News (VHS, 20 min., 2000)

When Daniel Jones ignited his truck on the Los Angeles Freeway, adult and child audiences saw what

turned out to be a gruesome suicide, live and in color. Can real-time coverage of such spectacles truly be

Covering the Big Story: The O. J. Simpson Verdict (VHS, 28 min., 1999)

This program was shot in Los Angeles on the day of the O. J. Simpson trial verdict as reporters,

photographers, engineers, editors, producers, and bureau chiefs scrambled for coverage, negotiated for

Writing for Television (VHS, 48 min., 1988)

Four veteran TV writers discuss the components of a successful script. Topics include telling a story with

pictures, creating a character, generating dialogue, collaborating, rewriting, adapting a novel, and

developing a mini-series. Distributor: Insight Media.

TV News Gathering and Reporting (VHS, 30 min., 1997)

This video presents interviews that illuminate the thoughts and attitudes of people who produce

newscasts. It examines the struggle between following journalistic ideals and bottom-line concerns.

Distributor: Insight Media.

Uneasy Partners: The Press and the Military (VHS, 50 min., 1996)

This video explores the relationship between the press and the military in the United States. It shows the

shift from the partnership of World War II—when news stories were often omitted at the military’s