Media Studies Chapter 10 Media Theory And Effects Learning Objectives After Reading This Students

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CHAPTER 10

Media Theory and Effects

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter students should be able to understand the following concepts:

Media effects research: Understand key terms relevant to the study of media effects such as media,

effects, and theory and review the strengths and limitations of research methods used by media

researchers.

Communication process model: Identify the elements of simple communication process models.

Early research: Understand the history of effects research and its role in policy making research and

selection of research topics.

CHAPTER FOCUS

Media’s impact on society has long been controversial. Scholars have spent thousands of hours analyzing

media effects. Major policy decisions regarding media often rely on research to support goals and

assumptions and to predict probable outcomes.

The first section provides definitions of media, effects, and theory. The terms explained here provide an

introduction to media theory and research and will help students understand and talk about media effects

studies. Obviously you could spend weeks discussing the material presented in this chapter’s first section

alone. Five major types of research – sample surveys, content analysis, laboratory experiments, field

studies, and ethnographic studies – are explained, noting strengths and weaknesses for each.

The next section examines communication as process consisting of five different elements that define the

broad objectives of media research. It explains how communicators, content, channels, and audiences

influence the outcomes of communicating.

TERMS, CONCEPTS, AND EXERCISES

Conducting and evaluating Media Effects Research

Terms: audience, media, media content, media technology, technological convergence, correlation,

causation, effects size, statistical significance, random samples, sampling error, causal explanation,

sample surveys, content analysis, laboratory experiments, confounding variables, field studies,

ethnographic studies, participant observation

oTake time to explain the terms such as theory, correlation, causation, effects size, statistical

significance to lay the foundation for understanding the material presented in this chapter.

oThe problem of how to measure human attention, understanding, learning, and opinion formation

Communication as a Process – A simple Communication Model

Terms: communication as process, originators, contents, channels, audiences, effects, Harold Lasswell,

gatekeepers, media exposure, sender, transmitter, receiver, recipient, noise, feedback, message, encoding,

decoding

oWhat are the advantages of describing communication as a process? Describe the five elements

and how they guide media research. Go over the simple communication model in Exhibit 10.b.

Early Research on Media Effects

Terms: mass propaganda, bullet (hypodermic-injection) theory, intervening variables, opinion leaders,

two-step flow, selective exposure, selective perception

oStudents know little about media research. If students understand changes in media research, they

have context, for their own questions. Review the timeline on media effects research development

A Sampling of Media Effects Theories

Terms: cultivation theory, George Gerbner, Annenberg School for Communication University of

Pennsylvania, perception of reality, stereotypes, mainstreaming, socialization, social learning theory,

Albert Bandura, reciprocal determinism, behaviorism, spiral of silence, majority opinion, third person

effect, agenda-setting theory, Maxwell McCombs, Donald Shaw, gatekeepers, reciprocal relationship

oExplain how mainstreaming reinforces stereotypes (Stereotypes are shortcuts for the writer, a way

to communicate to the audience, that can be deliberately oversimplified versions of reality to fit

preconceived images). Discuss why stereotypes are so prevalent in television entertainment. Point

out the disadvantages of stereotypes: stereotypical images perpetuate existing opinions, which

may not always be positive, in the minds of the viewer.

oHow does television’s fictional world differ from the real world? Consider characters’ ages, sex,

ethnicity, lifestyle, location, etc. Which “world” has a greater interest for the television-viewing

public? Discuss crime on television. Who are likely to be the perpetrators of crime and who are

the likely victims? Discuss occupations of television’s heroes. How many TV characters are

plumbers, contractors, janitors, accountants, or assembly-line workers? Why?

oWhat is meant by “socialization”? Can TV teach prosocial values as well as antisocial values?

Get students to discuss social values they may have learned, at least in part, from television. You

The Active Audience Approach

Terms: uses and gratifications, gratifications sought, gratifications obtained, ritualistic, instrumental,

glow and flow principle, elaboration likelihood model, central route, peripheral route, motivation, ability,

congruence, selective exposure, brand marketing theory, brand loyalty, technological determinism,

Marshall McLuhan, multitasking

oHave students mention some of the needs they use media to satisfy: information, relaxation,

emotional release, or companionship. Explain the difference between gratifications sought and

The Effects of Media Violence: A Case Study

Terms: violence, justified violence, gratuitous violence, excessive violence, aggressive behavior,

government-sponsored censorship, industry self-regulation

oSummarize research findings on television violence. It is important to point out that while

exposure to television violence may be related to aggressive behavior, attitudes, and values

other variables such as age, personality traits and exposure to family violence may explain

aggressive behavior. Why are young children more vulnerable to the effects of media

violence? Have students debate the criticisms of media violence research. What is the

acceptable effects size to warrant action?

PEARSON MYCOMMUNICATIONKIT RESOURCES

Each chapter of the MyCommKit for Head’s Broadcasting in America, 10th Edition includes chapter

learning objectives, practice quizzes, key terms flash card, and select media.

Media available for this chapter:

Outside Audio/Visual Resources

Creating Critical TV Viewers (VHS, 77 min., 1992)

This video encourages viewers to be intelligent and critical consumers of television. It shows how to

analyze TV material, interpret both direct and hidden messages, understand sequencing, integrate aural

and visual elements, differentiate between fact and opinion, identify emotional appeals, and distinguish

among inferences, predictions, and conclusions. It also considers the economics of TV, stereotypes on

TV, and program editing. Distributor: Insight Media.

Mass Media (VHS, 26 min., 1991)

This video analyzes the influence of mass media on individuals and society. It shows how the media both

reflects and influences culture and aids in setting a national agenda and establishing cultural norms. It

discusses the historical influence of the press and explores the effects of biased reporting. It also covers

the limitations of mass media. Distributor: Insight Media.

The Functions of Mass Communications (VHS, 26 min., 1989)

Defining mass communication and differentiating it from other forms of communication, this video

examines how the media select and interpret news events and serve as a forum for new ideas. It also

discusses media involvement in entertainment, transmission of culture, and enforcement of societal

norms. Distributor: Insight Media.

Television and Human Behavior (VHS, 26 min., 1992)

Showing how television affects human behavior, this video defines types of viewers—traditionals,

zippers, flippers, and zappers. It shows how the portrayal of people and relationships on television

influences people’s actions. It also examines television as a distorted mirror of society. Distributor:

Insight Media.

Violence and Sex on TV (VHS, 28 min., 1994)

Adaptation from Phil Donahue program, this show explores the effect on young people raised on a diet of

Amos ‘n’ Andy: Anatomy of a Controversy (3/4” cas., 60 min., 1981)

Narrated by George Kirby. Rare footage of Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll in their radio roles. Then

footage of the black actors who assumed the TV roles. Discussion with Jesse Jackson and others about the

Women Seen on Television (VHS, 11 min., 1991)

Aimed at stimulating discussion about the role of media in perpetuating gender stereotypes, this video

presents condensed broadcast footage from two consecutive days to show how women are portrayed by

TV Violence and You (VHS, 30 min., 1999)

Well-known expert on violence, George Gerbner, analyzes one week of television shows to determine

their level of violence. The effects on viewers of both blatant violence and subtle violent imagery are

analyzed. We see how the disproportionate violence shown on the news makes viewers perceive their

Does TV Kill? (VHS, 90 min., 1995)

Sponsored by the National Campaign to Reduce Youth Violence, this PBS Frontline video investigates

television’s role in America’s increasingly violent society. It reveals how exposure to violent images can

change the attitudes and beliefs of children and adults. Produced by Michael McLeod. Distributor: Insight

Media.

Representation and the Media (VHS, 50 min., 1997)

In this video, Stuart Hall examines the concept of representation. He explains that our experience of

reality is filtered through the lens of culture. Using examples from sports and advertising, he explores the

Media Impact (VHS, 28 min., 1998)

This program emphasizes the seductive nature of films and television. The manufactured reality of films

and TV plays a role in popularizing certain behaviors—some of which are unhealthy or antisocial. Studies

show that as audiences become saturated with violent images, they can all-too-easily become desensitized

to real-life situations. In addition, some suffer from media narcosis, a form of addiction which, when TV

is removed from the environment, causes symptoms of withdrawal. Distributor: Films for the Humanities

and Sciences.

TV-TV: The Television Revolution (VHS, 96 min., 1998)

Television has had far-reaching and deep-felt effects on almost every aspect of society. This visually

dazzling program, hosted by self-styled televisionary Moses Znaimer, features footage of media

luminaries such as Marshall McLuhan, George Gerbner, Oliver Stone, and Camille Paglia. In a series of

When East Meets West: Asian Stereotypes in Film (VHS, 53 min., 2000)

When an aspiring Chinese actress goes to an audition and is told, “You are trying to be what you are not.

You should be more Chinese,” she is understandably confused. What exactly does it mean to be more

Hispanics in the Media (VHS, 44 min., 1998)

From news anchors to editors, from actors to filmmakers—Hispanics are making their presence known.

Discrimination still exists, however. In this program, Hispanics who have made it describe how they did

The Unelected: The Media (VHS, 38 min., 2000)

In an environment increasingly dominated by network ratings and tabloid-driven stories, the line between

journalism and entertainment is blurred. In this program, correspondent Hedrick Smith goes behind the

hype and the headlines to show how the media affect the national agenda and the standards of political

Windows on Asia-Pacific: Asian Television Commercials (VHS, 47 min., 1998)

Media visionary Marshall McLuhan once observed that advertising provides the richest and most faithful

reflection of a society’s culture. What, then, do television commercials reveal about the non-Western

Media Impact (VHS, 30 min., 1997)

This video considers the social impact of motion pictures and television, looking specifically at

stereotyping and violence in the media. Distributor: Insight Media.

bell hooks: Cultural Criticism and Transformation (VHS, 70 min., 1997)

bell hooks argues that it is possible to acknowledge the media’s impact without denying the pleasure we

derive from popular culture. She shows the value of cultural studies by analyzing Hoop Dreams, the O. J.

Simpson case, Madonna’s shift from feminism to conservatism, and reactions to Spike Lee. Distributor:

Insight Media.

Consumer Seduction: From Romance to Reality (VHS, 22 min., 1992)

Showing how advertisers sell dangerous and addictive lifestyles in addition to their products, this video

explores the myths, messages, claims, and techniques of tobacco and alcohol advertising. With

interviews, clips from advertisements, and disturbing statistics, the program examines the impact of

alcohol and cigarette advertising on addictive behavior. Distributor: Insight Media.

Tough Guise (VHS, 40 min., 1999)

This video explores the relationship between pop culture images and the social construction of masculine

identity in late twentieth century America. Hosted by Jackson Katz, it argues that many of the guises

Violence in the Media (VHS, 60 min., 1997)

This video investigates whether the portrayal of violence in the media truly encourages violent acts or

whether media depictions simply mirror existing social dysfunction. It traces the long history of violence

in entertainment from Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show to contemporary graphic horror movies. It also

includes critical commentary on the debate surrounding such proposed solutions as the V-chip.

Distributor: Insight Media.

The Killing Screens: Media and the Culture of Violence (VHS, 40 min., 1994)

This video address the psychological, political, social, and developmental effects of living in a society

where media violence is pervasive. Dr. George Gerbner of the Annenberg School of Communication

The Glitter: Sex, Drugs, and the Media (VHS, 23 min., 1995)

This video explores the powerful effects of the media on people’s behavior. It demonstrates the dangers

of accepting the lifestyles and products promoted, presenting alarming statistics about alcohol

Dreamworlds (VHS, 56 min., 1995)

Displaying footage from over 165 music videos, this explicit program probes the relationship between the

airing of objectified images of women and sexual violence. Over a continuous stream of images, the

Killing Us Softly 3: Advertising’s Image of Women (VHS, 30 min., 1999)

Produced by Jean Kilbourne, filmmaker of Killing Us Softly (1979) and Still Killing Us Softly (1987), this

video reviews how—and if—images of women in advertising have changed in the last 20 years. Designed

On Campus with Marshall McLuhan (VHS, 34 min., 1979)

This video features communications expert Marshall McLuhan in a wide-ranging discussion with

philosophy professor Geoffrey Payzant in which they apply the laws of media to the field of music. They

Mass Media (VHS, 26 min., 1991)

This video analyzes the influence of mass media on individuals and society. It shows how the media both

reflects and influences culture and aids in establishing a national agenda and cultural norms. It discusses

the historical influence of the press, explores the effects of biased reporting, and probes mass media’s

limitations. Distributor: Insight Media.

Media: Today’s Gomorrah? (VHS, 29 min., 1997)

This video considers how the depiction of sex and violence in film, on television, and on the Internet

affects individual psychological health, as well as the fabric of American society. Distributor: Insight

Media.

Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls (VHS, 35 min., 1998)

The Distorted Image: Stereotype and Caricature in

American Popular Graphics, 1850–1922 (VHS, 28 min., 1992)

This video presents cartoons and caricatures from American popular publications, showing how they

reflect widespread attitudes toward immigrant, racial, ethnic, and religious minorities in the United States.

I’m Not What You See on TV! Hollywood’s Portrayal of

Urban Youth (VHS, 45 min., 1998)

This video addresses the role of the media in creating or embellishing negative stereotypes of urban

youth. It considers the power of pop culture and news sensationalism to affect or exacerbate real issues

and it examines methods for combating this destructive tendency. Distributor: Insight Media.

Breaking Through Stereotypes (VHS, 15 min., 1994)

This student-produced video explores racial stereotypes in Hollywood films and other media, considering

how they influence viewers’ interactions with others. It takes a sometimes humorous look at stereotypes

of Latinos, Asians, Italians, African-Americans, and Jews. Distributor: Insight Media.

Yellow Tale Blues (VHS, 30 min., 1990)

This video presents clips from Hollywood movies that reveal nearly a century of disparaging

representations of Asians. These media images are contrasted with portraits of a Chinese immigrant

family and a fourth-generation Chinese-American family. Distributor: Insight Media.

Images of Indians (VHS, 5 vol., 30 min. ea., 1979)

This five-part series explores how Native Americans have been portrayed in Hollywood westerns. It

discusses how and why Hollywood created the image of the Indian warrior and considers Hollywood’s