CHAPTER 9
LEARNING, MEMORY,
AND PRODUCT POSITIONING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1: Describe the nature of learning and memory
LO2: Explain the types of memory and memory’s role in learning
SUMMARY
LO1: Describe the nature of learning and memory
Learning is any change in the content or organization of long-term memory or behavior and is the
result of information processing. Information processing as a series of activities by which stimuli are
LO2: Explain the types of memory and memory’s role in learning
Memory is the result of learning, which involves information processing. Most commonly,
information goes directly into short-term memory (STM) for processing, where two basic activities
occur—maintenance rehearsal and elaborative activities. Maintenance rehearsal is the continual
repetition of a piece of information in order to hold it in current memory. Elaborative activities are the
LO3: Distinguish the different processes underlying high- and low-involvement learning
Consumers learn in various ways, which can be broadly classified into high-versus low-involvement
learning. High- involvement learning occurs when an individual is motivated to acquire the
information. Low-involvement learning occurs when an individual is paying only limited or indirect
(e.g., buying a brand) and some outcome (e.g., satisfaction) that serves to reinforce the response and is
generally high involvement in nature.
The cognitive approach to learning encompasses the mental activities of humans as they work to solve
problems, cope with complex situations, or function effectively in their environment. Cognitive
learning includes iconic rote learning (generally low involvement), vicarious learning/modeling (low
or high involvement), and analytical reasoning (generally high involvement).
LO4: Summarize the factors affecting information retrieval from memory
Once learned, information is retrieved from long-term memory for use in evaluations and decisions.
Retrieval failures or extinction of a learned response represents a reduction in marketing effectiveness.
Retrieval depends on strength of initial learning, memory interference, and the response environment.
Strength of learning depends on six basic factors: importance, message involvement, reinforcement,
mood, repetition, and dual coding. Importance refers to the value that the consumer places on the
information to be learned—greater importance increases learning and retrieval. Message involvement
Memory interference occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information
because other related information in memory gets in the way. A common form of memory interference
is due to competitive advertising. Competitive interference increases with increased advertising clutter.
But it can be reduced by avoiding competitive clutter, strengthening learning, reducing similarity to
competitor ads, and providing retrieval cues.
LO5: Understand the application of learning to brand positioning, equity, and leverage
Brand image, a market segment or individual consumer’s schematic memory of a brand, is a major
focus of marketing activity. Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to attempt to attain a
LECTURE TIPS AND AIDS
1) A good way to illustrate semantic memory is to provide a handout to the class such that one-third
of the class receives a piece of paper with a brand name at the top, one-third receives a product
2) A good way to underscore the importance of understanding the learning process for the student is
to describe advertisements as “learning situations encapsulated.” In effect, many ads try to show
3) Before class, ascertain the price of several items students would commonly purchase at a nearby
store such as the course textbook, pen, soft drink, quart of milk, or notebook. In class, ask the
4) The concept of imagery, one of the general characteristics of learning brought out in the chapter,
5) Extinction can be illustrated by asking for the names of recent defeated vice presidential
candidates, losers of recent super bowls or World Series, and the name of the author of the
textbook used in the basic marketing class.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) What is learning?
Learning is any change in the content or organization of long-term memory and/or behavior.
2) What is memory?
3) Define short-term memory and long-term memory?
Short-term memory or working memory is that portion of total memory that is currently activated
or in use. Long-term memory is that portion of total memory devoted to permanent information
storage.
4) Discuss the nature of short-term memory in terms of its endurance and capacity.
5) What is maintenance rehearsal?
This is the continual repetition of a piece of information in order to hold it in current memory for
use in problem solving or transferal to long-term memory.
6) What is meant by elaborative activities?
7) What is meant by imagery in working memory?
This involves concrete sensory representations of ideas, feelings, and objects. Imagery processing
involves the recall and mental manipulation of sensory images, including sight, smell, taste, and
tactile sensations.
8) What is semantic memory?
9) How does a schema differ from a script?
Schema, often referred to as schematic memory or a knowledge structure, is a complex web of
10) What is episodic memory and how does it relate to flashbulb memory?
This is the memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated. These personal
memories of events such as a first date, graduation, or learning to drive, can be quite strong.
11) Describe low-involvement learning. How does it differ from high-involvement learning?
A low-involvement learning situation is one in which the consumer has little or no motivation to
learn the material. High-involvement learning occurs in situations where the individual is highly
12) What do we mean by cognitive learning, and how does it differ from the conditioning theory
approach to learning?
Cognitive learning encompasses all the mental activities of humans as they work to solve
problems or cope with situations. It involves learning ideas, concepts, attitudes, and facts that
13) Distinguish between learning via classical conditioning and learning that occurs via operant
conditioning.
Classical conditioning refers to the process of using an existing relationship between a stimulus
14) What is iconic rote learning? How does it differ from classical conditioning? Operant
conditioning?
It is the learning of an association between two concepts in the absence of conditioning. That is,
the association is formed without a direct reward (operant conditioning) or pairing the stimulus
with an unconditioned response (classical conditioning).
15) Define modeling.
16) What is meant by analytical reasoning?
Analytical reasoning is the most complex form of cognitive learning, involving individuals’
engaging in creative thinking to restructure and recombine existing information as well as new
information to form new associations and concepts. Information from a credible source that
contradicts or challenges one’s existing beliefs will often trigger reasoning.
18) What is meant by stimulus generalization? When do marketers use it?
Often referred to as the “rub-off-effect,” once we have learned a particular response that works for
us, we are able to capitalize on that learning by transferring it to similar learning situations or
stimuli (generalizing). This is particularly useful to marketers in branding, where the use of a
19) Define stimulus discrimination. Why is it important?
Stimulus discrimination (or differentiation) refers to the process of learning to respond differently
to somewhat similar stimuli. Discrimination is important because it is the process by which buyers
strengthen their attachment to a particular brand and thus become brand loyal.
20) Explain extinction and retrieval failure and why marketing managers are interested in them.
Extinction (associated with conditioned learning) and retrieval failure (associated with cognitive
learning) is the process of forgetting that which has been learned and occurs for various reasons
21) What factors affect the strength of learning?
Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors: importance, message involvement, mood,
reinforcement, repetition, and dual coding. Generally, learning will come about more rapidly, and
22) How does self-referencing relate to strength of learning and retrieval?
Self-referencing is a message involvement strategy used to highlight a brand’s personal relevance
to the consumer. For example, ads using nostalgia appeals which encourage the consumer to
remember past personal experiences can be very powerful.
23) What is memory interference and what strategies can marketers use to deal with it?
Memory interference occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of
24) Why is it useful to match the retrieval and learning environments?
Research indicates that individuals are better able to recall learned material if the situation in
which they need to recall it is similar to the situation in which they learned it.
25) What is a brand image? Why is it important?
Brand image refers to the schematic memory of a brand. It contains the target market’s
26) What is product positioning? Repositioning?
Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to
27) What is perceptual mapping?
Perceptual mapping offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a
product’s position. This involves mapping how consumers perceive the similarity and dissimilarity
between a set of competing brands or products. The closer two brands are in a perceptual map, the
28) What is brand equity?
Brand equity is the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond any specific functional
characteristics of the product. Thus, there is a halo effect associated with the reputation of the
brand such that it has added value or meaning to consumers.
29) What does leveraging brand equity mean?
Discussion Questions
30) How would you determine the best product position for the following:
a) A brand of tablet computer
b) A cell phone targeting children
The essential first step is a definition of the target market and its needs. Then, one needs to
31) Is low-involvement learning really widespread? Which products are most affected by low–
involvement learning?
Low-involvement learning is probably very widespread, but this is difficult to document. Products
that are heavily advertised, and in which most people have little interest, are most likely to be
32) Almex and Company introduced a new coffee-flavored liqueur in direct competition with Hiram
Walker’s tremendously successful Kahlua brand. Almex named its new entry Kamora and
packaged it in a bottle similar to that of Kahlua, using a pre-Columbian label design. The ad copy
for Kamora reads: “If you like coffee—you’ll love Kamora.” Explain Almex’s marketing strategy
in terms of learning theory.
33) Describe the brand images the following “brands” have among students on your campus.
a) Samsung Galaxy smartphone
b) Your student government
d) Toyota Prius hybrid
e) The United Way
34) In what ways, if any, would the brand images you described in response to the previous question
differ with different groups, such as (a) middle-aged professionals, (b) young blue-collar workers,
(c) high school students, and (d) retired couples?
Assign students different brands from Question 33 and specific segments outlined above. Arrange
35) What role does dual coding play in the learning process?
Dual coding involves storing the same information in different ways resulting in more internal
pathways (associative links) for retrieving information. This, in turn, can increase learning and
memory.
36) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 9–1.
Q1 – This is a question that most students would answer in the affirmative. It might be interesting
to take a quick poll to determine the most frequent earworms among your students – to see if the
most common earworms are popular songs or advertising jingles.
Q3 – The advantages of licensing popular music – Popular music is by definition well known and
liked. The likeability of the music laps over to the brand.
37) Evaluate the Illustrations 9-1 through 9-5 in light of their apparent objectives and target market.
Answers will vary. The key is that students use the insights and concepts of the chapter as they
apply to each.
38) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 9–2.
Q1 – The intention of the repositioning effort was to draw in new female whiskey drinkers to the
brand. This reflects one of the positive outcomes of brand equity — increased market share.
Unfortunately, Jane Walker appears to have set the Johnnie Walker brand back in its quest to
connect with and capture the market share of female drinkers. Therefore, Jane Walker may have
hurt brand equity.
.
Q3 – Answers may vary. Some may indicate that J. W. should have carefully laid the groundwork
early on by connecting and investing in women’s issues prior to launch. Others may criticize the
approach as being too gimmicky and potentially insulting to the target audience. They may further
suggest that more appropriate and effective efforts might have involved a sustained advertising
campaign highlighting strong and independent women in positive career and social settings
consuming J. W.