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Chapter 9 – Qualitative Data Analysis
Chapter 9
Qualitative Data Analysis
Learning Objectives (PPT slide 9-2)
1. Contrast qualitative and quantitative data analyses.
2. Explain the steps in qualitative data analysis.
3. Describe the processes of categorizing and coding data and developing theory.
Key Terms and Concepts
1. Categorization
2. Codes
3. Code sheet
4. Comparison
5. Credibility
6. Cross-researcher reliability
Chapter Summary by Learning Objectives
Contrast qualitative and quantitative data analyses.
There are many differences between qualitative and quantitative data analyses. The data that are
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Chapter 9 – Qualitative Data Analysis
analyzed in qualitative research include text and images, rather than numbers. In quantitative
research, the goal is to quantify the magnitude of variables and relationships, or explain causal
Explain the steps in qualitative data analysis.
After data collection, there are three steps in analyzing qualitative data. Researchers move back
and forth between these steps iteratively rather than going through them one step at a time. The
steps are data reduction, constructing data displays, and drawing/verifying conclusions. Data
reduction consists of several interrelated processes: categorization and coding, theory
Describe the processes of categorizing and coding data and developing theory.
During the categorization phase, researchers develop categories based both on preexisting theory
and the categories that emerge from the data. They code the data in margins and develop a code
sheet that shows the various labels that they are developing. The codes are revised and revisited as
Clarify how credibility is established in qualitative data analysis.
Credibility in data analysis is established through (1) careful, iterative analysis in categorization
and theory development, (2) the use of negative case analysis, and (3) triangulation. In negative
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Chapter 9 – Qualitative Data Analysis
case analysis, researchers systematically search the data for information that does not conform to
Discuss the steps involved in writing a qualitative research report.
A qualitative report has three sections: (1) introduction; (2) analysis of the data/findings; and (3)
conclusions and recommendations. In the introductory portion of the report, the objectives of the
research and methodology are explained. In the data analysis section, the reported findings are
Chapter Outline
Opening Vignette: Why Women are “Claiming the Throttle”
The opening vignette in this chapter describes why women are increasingly choosing to ride
motorcycles. Motorcycle riding has been described as a hypermasculine “outlaw” subculture.
Thus, women who choose to ride motorcycles are resisting or expanding existing cultural ideas of
women’s roles. Currently, about 5 percent of motorcycle riders are women, with estimates as high
as 17 percent of riders from Generation X.
I. Nature of Qualitative Data Analysis (PPT slide 9-3)
The data qualitative researchers analyze consists of text (and sometimes images) rather than
numbers. Some researchers criticize qualitative research as “soft,” lacking rigor and being inferior.
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Chapter 9 – Qualitative Data Analysis
When magnitude of response and statistical projectability are important, quantitative research
should be used to verify and extend qualitative findings. But when the purpose of a research
project is to better understand psychoanalytical or cultural phenomena, quantitative research may
not offer a great deal of insight or depth. For these topics, qualitative research and analysis often is
superior to quantitative research in providing useful knowledge for decision makers.
II. Qualitative versus Quantitative Analyses (PPT slide 9-4)
There are many differences between the processes of analyzing and interpreting qualitative and
quantitative data.
• Qualitative data is textual (and occasionally visual), rather than numerical. While the goal of
quantitative analysis is quantifying the magnitude of variables and relationships, or
explaining causal relationships, understanding is the goal of qualitative analysis.
Qualitative data analysis is largely inductive. Because an inductive process is used, the theory that
emerges is often called grounded theory. The categories and corresponding codes for categories
are developed as researchers work through the texts and images and find what is there.
There is no one process for analyzing qualitative data. Qualitative researchers differ in their beliefs
about the use of quantifying their data.
III. The Process of Analyzing Qualitative Data (PPT slide 9-5)
After data is collected, researchers engage in a three-step process of analysis.
• Data reduction
• Data display
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• Conclusion drawing/verification
The three steps and relationships between the steps and data collection efforts are pictured in
Exhibit 9.1 (PPT slide 9-5).
A. Managing the Data Collection Effort
Whether the collection method is focus groups or in-depth interviews, the data will be
transcribed for further analysis. Data from online focus groups, private communities, and social
media sites is collected in one database to facilitate analysis. Occasionally, participants are
asked to write stories or respond to open-ended questions, and their written responses become
the data set.
B. Step 1: Data Reduction (PPT slides 9-6 to 9-10)
The amount of data collected in a qualitative study can be extensive. Researchers must make
decisions about how to categorize and represent the data. This results in data reduction which
involves categorization and coding of data that is part of the theory development process in
qualitative data analysis. The most systematic method of analysis is to read through transcripts
and develop categories to represent the data. When similar topics are encountered, they are
coded similarly. Researchers may simply write codes in the margins of their transcripts. But
Categorization and Coding: The first step in data reduction is categorization (PPT slide 9-9). It
involves placing portions of transcripts into similar groups based on their content. There may be
some categories that are determined before the study because of existing researcher knowledge
and experience. However, most often the codes are developed inductively as researchers read
through transcripts and discover new themes of interest and code new instances of categories
that have already been discovered. The sections that are coded can be one word long or several
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pages. The same sections of data can be categorized in multiple ways. If a passage refers to
Comparison: Comparison is the process of developing and refining theory and constructs by
analyzing the differences and similarities in passages, themes, or types of participants (PPT
slide 9-7). There is an analogy to experimental design, in which various conditions or
manipulations (for instance, price levels, advertising appeals) are compared to each other or to a
control group. Comparison first occurs as researchers identify categories. Each potential new
instance of a category or theme is compared to already coded instances to determine if the new
instance belongs in the existing category. When all transcripts have been coded and important
categories and themes identified, instances within a category will be scrutinized so that the
theme can be defined and explained in more detail.
Comparison processes are also used to better understand the differences and similarities
between two constructs of interest. Comparisons can also be made between different kinds of
informants.
Qualitative researchers may look for one core category or theme to build their storyline around,
a process referred to as selective coding (PPT slide 9-8). The other categories will be related to
or subsumed to this central overarching category.
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Given its role as an integrating concept, it is not surprising that selective coding generally
occurs in the later stages of data analysis. Once the overarching theme is developed, researchers
review all their codes and cases to better understand how they relate to the larger category, or
central storyline, that has emerged from their data.
An important element of iterative analysis is note taking or memoing (PPT slide 9-9). It refers
to writing down thoughts as soon as possible after each interview, focus group, or site visit.
Perhaps most important, during the iterative process researchers use negative case analysis,
which means that they deliberately look for cases and instances that contradict the ideas and
theories that they have been developing (PPT slide 9-9). Negative case analysis helps to
establish boundaries and conditions for the theory that is being developed by the qualitative
researcher. The general stance of qualitative researchers should be skepticism toward the ideas
and theory they have created based on the data they have collected. Otherwise they are likely to
look for evidence that confirms their preexisting biases and early analysis. Doing so may result
in important alternative conceptualizations that are legitimately present in the data being
completely overlooked.
The Role of Tabulation: The use of tabulation in qualitative analyses is controversial. Some
analysts feel that any kind of tabulation will be misleading. After all, the data collected are not
like survey data where all questions are asked of all respondents in exactly the same way. Each
focus group or in-depth interview asks somewhat different questions in somewhat different
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ways. Frequency of mention is not always a good measure of research importance. A unique
answer from a lone wolf in an interview may be worthy of attention because it is consistent with
other interpretation and analysis, or because it suggests a boundary condition for the theory and
findings.
Exhibit 9.4 shows a tabulation from the study of senior adoption of the Internet.
Another way to use tabulation is to look at co-occurrences of themes in the study. Exhibit 9.5
shows the number of times selected concepts were mentioned together in the same coded
passage.
C. Step 2: Data Display (PPT slide 9-11)
Data displays are important because they help reduce and summarize the extensive textual data
collected in the study in a way that conveys major ideas in a compact fashion. Coming up with
ideas for useful data displays is a creative task that can be both fun and satisfying. Some data
displays provide interim analysis and thus may not be included in the final report. In any case,
the displays will probably change over the course of analysis as researchers interpret and
re-read their data and modify and qualify their initial impressions. The displays also evolve as
researchers seek to better display their findings.
Displays may be tables or figures. Tables have rows or row by column formats that cross
themes and/or informants. Figures may include the following:
• flow diagrams
• traditional box and arrow causal diagrams (often associated with quantitative research)
• diagrams that display circular or recursive relationships
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Chapter 9 – Qualitative Data Analysis
While displays of qualitative findings are quite diverse, some common types of displays are as
follows.
• A table that explains central themes in the study (Exhibit 9.6)
D. Step 3: Conclusion Drawing/Verification (PPT slides 9-12 to 9-14)
The iterative process and negative case analysis continues through the verification phase of the
project. The process includes checking for common biases that may affect researcher
conclusions. A list of the most common biases to watch out for is shown in Exhibit 9.9.
Quantitative researchers establish credibility in data analysis by demonstrating that their results
are reliable (measurement and findings are stable, repeatable, and generalizable) and valid (the
research measures what it was intended to measure). In contrast, the credibility of qualitative
data analysis is based on the rigor of “the actual strategies used for collecting, coding, analyzing,
and presenting data when generating theory.” The essential question in developing credibility in
qualitative research is “How can (a researcher) persuade his or her audiences that the research
findings of an inquiry are worth paying attention to?”
Triangulation addresses the research analysis from multiple perspectives, including using
multiple methods of data collection and analysis, multiple data sets, multiple researchers,
multiple time periods, and different kinds of relevant research informants (PPT slide 9-13).
Several kinds of triangulation are possible.
• Multiple methods of data collection and analysis
• Multiple data sets
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• Multiple researchers analyzing the data, especially if they come from different
backgrounds or research perspectives
Credibility is also increased when key informants and other practicing qualitative researchers
are asked to review the analyses. Soliciting feedback from key informants or member checking
strengthens the credibility of qualitative analysis. Seeking feedback from external expert
IV. Writing the Report (PPT slides 9-16 to 9-19)
Researchers should keep in mind that research reports are likely to be read by people in the
company who are not familiar with the study. Moreover, the study may be reviewed years later by
individuals who were not working at the company at the time the research was conducted.
Therefore, the research objectives and procedures should be well explained both to current and
future decision makers. Qualitative research reports typically contain three sections.
• Introduction
o Research objectives
• Analysis of the data/findings
o Literature review and relevant secondary data
• Conclusions and recommendations
The introductory portion of the report should present the research problem, objectives of the
research, and the methodology used (PPT slides 9-17 and 9-18). The methodology section of a
qualitative report usually contains the following:
• topics covered in questioning and other materials used in questioning informants
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of experience with the product or service
• the number of focus groups, interviews, or transcripts
• the total number of pages of the transcripts, number of pictures, videos, number and page
length of researcher memos
A. Analysis of the Data/Findings (PPT slide 9-19)
The sequence of reported findings should be written in a way that is logical and persuasive.
Secondary data may be brought into the analysis to help contextualize the findings.
B. Conclusions and Recommendations (PPT slides 9-20 and 9-21)
Researchers should provide information that is relevant to the research problem articulated by
the client. Knowledge of both the market and the client’s business is useful in translating
research findings into managerial implications.
Marketing Research in Action
A Qualitative Approach to Understanding Product Dissatisfaction (PPT slides 6-22 and
6-24)
The Marketing Research in Action in this chapter points out the fact that product dissatisfaction
has important negative consequences for businesses. In this assignment, students will be
investigating the nature of product dissatisfaction qualitatively. The instructor will form groups of
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Project Assignment 1: Write a two-page summary about an unsatisfactory purchase experience
you have made recently. In your narrative essay, you should include (1) the product or service, (2)
your expectations when you bought the product or service, (3) any interactions with salespeople or
customer service people before, during, or after the purchase, (4) the feelings and emotions that
accompanied your dissatisfaction, and (5) the outcomes of your dissatisfaction. You should
include any other details you remember as well.
Project Assignment 2: With your group members, collectively go through three of the product
dissatisfaction narratives, writing codes in the margins of the narratives to represent categories or
themes. As you go, write codes directly on the narratives and create a separate code sheet. You will
likely need to create new codes as you go through the narrative, but the number of new codes
needed will be smaller the more narratives that are coded. Look at the sample code sheet in Exhibit
9.2 and a coded section of a transcript in Exhibit 9.3. The exhibit uses numbers, but it is probably
easier for you to simply label your data with the name of the category. For example, you may write
“emotion: disappointment” in the margin any time you encounter an instance of disappointment.
When your group has coded three narratives together, the remaining seven can be divided among
individuals in the group to be coded. Some codes may still have to be added to the code sheet as
individual group members code. Any new codes should be added to the master code sheet that
group members are utilizing. The result should be ten coded narratives and one master code sheet.
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Project Assignment 3: Your group has now read and coded all ten narratives, so you are familiar
with your data set. With your group members, make a list of how the cases are similar. Then make
Project Assignment 4: Create a data display or two that usefully summarizes your findings.
Exhibits 9.6 through 9.8 show sample displays. Hint: It is likely easiest in this case to create a list
Project Assignment 5: Perhaps the most difficult task for new researchers is to come up with an
overarching concept that integrates your categories. Re-read the section on integration on pp. 221
and 222 in your text. As a group, come up with one idea or concept that integrates all your themes
into one overarching theme.
Project Assignment 6: If your group were to further refine your analysis, which of the techniques
that help ensure credibility would you use? Write down your choices and briefly explain why they
would improve the credibility of the analysis.
Project Assignment 7: Based on your group’s analysis in project assignments #1 to #6, make a
presentation to the class that includes slides that address methodology, findings (including some
relevant verbatims and your data display(s)), research limitations, and conclusions and
Turn in a copy of your presentation along with the coded narratives, and your master code sheet.
Answers to Review Questions
1. How are quantitative and qualitative data analyses different?
There are many differences between qualitative and quantitative data analyses. The data that
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Chapter 9 – Qualitative Data Analysis
2. Describe the three steps in qualitative data analysis, and explain how and why these steps are
iterative.
After data collection, there are three steps in analyzing qualitative data. Researchers move
back and forth between these steps iteratively rather than going through them one step at a
time. The steps are data reduction, constructing data displays, and drawing/verifying
conclusions. Data reduction consists of several interrelated processes: categorization and
researchers work to establish the credibility of their data analysis.
3. What are the interrelated steps in data reduction?
Data reduction involves categorization and coding, comparisons, integration, iteration,
negative case analysis, and possibly tabulation.
4. How do you build theory in qualitative analysis?
Theory building in qualitative work is based on “grounded” theory, meaning that the theory
is based on the data collected. This is accomplished through integration. Integration is the
5. What is negative case analysis, and why is it important to the credibility of qualitative
analysis?
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Negative case analysis involves deliberately looking for cases and instances that contradict
and conditions for the theory being developed. The stance is one of skepticism.
6. Give some specific examples data displays, and explain how they may be used in qualitative
data analysis.
Displays may be tables or figures. Tables have rows or row by column formats that cross
themes and/or informants. Figures may include flow diagrams; traditional box and arrow
causal diagrams (often associated with quantitative research); diagrams that display circular
7. What are some of threats to drawing credible conclusions in qualitative data analysis?
Possible threats are listed in Exhibit 9.9 in the text and include the following:
• salience of first impressions or of observations of highly concrete or dramatic
incidents
• selectivity which leads to overconfidence in some data, especially when trying to
confirm a key finding
8. What is triangulation, and what is its role in qualitative analysis?
Triangulation establishes credibility by addressing the analysis from multiple perspectives
including using multiple methods of data collection and analysis, multiple data sets, multiple
9. What are the various ways that credibility can be established in qualitative analysis?
Credibility can be established using several tools. Cross-researcher reliability is the degree
of similarity in the coding of the same data by different researchers. Triangulation
establishes credibility by addressing the analysis from multiple perspectives, including using
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Answers to Discussion Questions
1. Compare reliability and validity in quantitative analysis with the concept of credibility used
in qualitative analysis. Do you believe the concepts are really similar? Why, or why not?
The concepts are similar but the method of demonstrating reliability and validity are
different. However, the methods have to be different given the differences between
qualitative and quantitative methods, data, and analysis. As stated in the text, “Quantitative
2. Let’s say your college has as a goal increasing participation in student activities on campus.
To help this effort, you are doing an ethnographic study to better understand why students do
or do not participate in student activities. How would you plan for triangulation in this
study?
Triangulation establishes credibility by addressing the analysis from multiple perspectives,
including using multiple methods of data collection and analysis, multiple data sets, multiple
researchers, multiple time periods, and different kinds of relevant research informants. That
means we could integrate triangulation in many ways. We could interview a variety of
3. EXPERIENCE MARKETING RESEARCH. Ask permission from three people to
analyze the content of their Facebook or similar site (of course, you should promise them
anonymity). If the sites are extensive, you may need a plan to sample a portion of the website
(at least five to ten representative pages). As you go through the sites, develop a coding sheet.
What did you learn about social networking sites from your coding? What content categories
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are the most frequently occurring? What do you conclude based on the fact that these
categories are the most frequently occurring at these three websites? Are there any
implications of your findings for advertisers that are considering advertising on social
networking sites?
Students’ answers will vary but some common themes include friendships, recent activities,
and groups and clubs. In analyzing content, students should consider the content shown
4. An anthropology professor over the age of 50 took a year of leave and spent the year
undercover as a student at her college. She did not take classes in her own department, but
instead signed up, attended classes, took exams, and wrote papers just like any other
freshman. She lived in the dorm for part of the year. At the end of a year, she wrote a book
entitled My Freshman Year, which details her findings. In reporting the research
methodology of her study, what methodological strengths and weaknesses should the
anthropology professor address?
This book is a very interesting read (for both teachers and students), but it is subject to
limitations. Here are some to consider. The professor is much older than the average
5. Conduct three or four in-depth interviews with college students who are not business majors.
You will be conducting an investigation of the associations that college students make with
the word marketing. You can ask students to bring five to ten images of any type (pictures,
cutouts from magazines) that most essentially picture what they think marketing is all about.
You may also conduct a word association exercise with the students. During the interview,
you may want to tell informants that you are an alien from another planet and have never
heard of marketing. Based on your interviews, develop a diagram that shows the concepts
that students relate to marketing. Draw a circle around the most frequently occurring
connections in your diagram. What did you learn about how college students view
marketing?
Students’ answers will vary, but this should be a fun and interesting assignment.