Marketing Chapter 7 Attitudes And Attitude Change Learning Objectives After Studying This Students

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Chapter 7

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, students should be able to accomplish the following objectives.

7-1 Define attitudes and describe attitude components.

7-3 Understand how the hierarchy of effects concept applies to attitude theory.

7-5 Describe attitude change theories and their role in persuasion.

7-6 Understand how message and source effects influence persuasion.

Lecture Example

Rising gas prices have had a significant impact on consumer behavior. Consumers have realized

that the only way to counter the rise in gas prices is to drive less or opt for more fuel-efficient

cars. They are also making fewer trips to retail stores to save on gas. This demonstrates the

knowledge aspect of consumer attitude, which allows consumers to simplify their decision–

making processes.

Lecture Outline with PowerPoint® Slides

LO 7-1: Define attitudes and describe attitude components.

I. Attitudes and Attitude Components [Instructor PPT Slide 3]

Attitudes are relatively enduring overall evaluations of objects, products, services, issues, or

people. Attitudes play a critical role in consumer behavior. They are particularly important

because they motivate people to behave in relatively consistent ways. It shouldn’t be surprising

A. Components of Attitudes [Instructor PPT Slide 4]

According to the ABC approach to attitudes, attitudes possess three important components:

affect, behavior, and cognitions.

• Affect refers to feelings about an object.

• Cognitions refer to beliefs that the consumer has about the object.

• Behavior refers to the overt behaviors that consumers exhibit as well as their intentions

to behave.

Q: Ask students to assume that they own the latest tablet computer with the most

advanced features available in the market. Ask them to describe their reactions to the

tablet and explain how different reactions illustrate the different components of

attitudes.

LO 7-2: Describe the functions of attitudes.

II. Functions of Attitudes [Instructor PPT Slides 5 and 6]

According to the functional theory of attitudes, attitudes perform four functions. The four

functions are the utilitarian function, the knowledge function, the value-expressive function, and

the ego-defensive function. These functions are summarized in Exhibit 7.1.

A. Utilitarian Function

The utilitarian function of attitudes is based on the concept of reward and punishment. This

means that consumers learn to use attitudes as ways to maximize rewards and minimize

punishment. Consumers can reap social rewards through expressing attitudes, and they often

express their attitudes as an attempt to develop or maintain relationships.

B. Knowledge Function

The knowledge function of attitudes allows consumers to simplify decision-making

processes. Attitudes perform the important function of helping consumers avoid undesirable

situations and approach more desirable situations. They also help consumers select objects

that they do like.

C. Value-Expressive Function

The value-expressive function of attitudes is found in a number of consumer settings. This

function enables consumers to express their core values, self-concept, and beliefs to others.

Accordingly, this function of attitude provides a positive expression of the type of person a

consumer perceives herself to be and the values that she holds.

D. Ego-Defensive Function

The ego-defensive function of attitudes works as a defense mechanism for consumers. There

are a couple of ways in which this function works.

Q: Have students provide examples for the ego-defensive function of attitudes. How does

this function enhance a consumer’s self-image?

LO 7-3: Understand how the hierarchy of effects concept applies to attitude theory.

III. Hierarchy of Effects [Instructor PPT Slides 7 and 8]

Research indicates that the three components of attitudes may be formed in a sequential pattern.

This process is known as the hierarchy of effects. According to this approach, affect, behavior,

and cognitions (beliefs) form by following one of four hierarchies.

A. High-Involvement Hierarchy

formed. Finally, after beliefs and feelings are formed, the consumer decides to act in some

way toward the product. Here, a purchase decision is made.

B. Low-Involvement Hierarchy

When low-involvement purchases are made, consumers often have some basic beliefs about

products without necessarily having strong feelings toward them.

C. Experiential Hierarchy

Many purchases are based on feelings, and consumers often purchase products or try

experiences simply because they “feel good” or “feel right.” Impulse purchases can be

D. Behavioral Influence Hierarchy

The behavioral influence hierarchy suggests that some behaviors occur without either beliefs

or affect being strongly formed beforehand. Strong environmental pressures lead to behaviors

without belief or affect formation. Behavior is influenced by environmental cues. This means

that there are times when behaviors may be performed in the absence of strong beliefs or

feelings.

Q: Ask students to give an example each for high-involvement and low-involvement

hierarchies.

LO 7-4: Comprehend the major consumer attitude models.

IV. Consumer Attitude Models [Instructor PPT Slide 9]

A major approach to measuring attitudes developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, the

attitude-toward-the-object model. This model is known as a multiattribute attitude model

because it combines information about a number of beliefs and evaluations pertaining to an

object’s attributes.

A. Attitude-Toward-the-Object Model [Instructor PPT Slides 10–12]

The attitude-toward-the-object (ATO) model (sometimes simply referred to as the Fishbein

model) proposes that three key elements must be assessed to understand and predict a

consumer’s attitude.

where A0 = attitude toward the object in question (or Abrand), bi = strength of belief that the

object possesses attribute i, ei = evaluation of the attractiveness or goodness of attribute i, and

Using the ATO Approach

To understand this model, first consider how the various elements are measured. The belief

ratings (b) can be measured on a 10–point scale, such as:

How likely is it that the Sony television will give you a clear picture?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Extremely unlikely Extremely likely

An example may help to clarify the use of this formula. Think of the situation that Jamal

faces selecting a new apartment. Jamal recently graduated from college and received a job

offer in a large city. He is now considering three different apartment complexes that

currently have vacancies. How could his attitude toward each one be predicted? This

information is presented in Exhibit 7.3.

Q: Have students imagine that they are marketers for a gym. How do members of their

target segment feel about the amenities offered in gyms? What is their opinion about the

equipment in the gym? What is their opinion about the trainers at the gym?

The ATO approach is known as a compensatory model. With compensatory models,

attitudes are formed holistically across a number of attributes, with poor ratings on one

attribute being compensated for by higher ratings on another attribute.

Implications of the ATO Approach

Information obtained from this model has important marketing implications. First, attitude

research is most often performed on entire market segments rather than on individuals. An

equally important issue for managers would be learning if consumers believe that products

Do Attitudes Always Predict Behavior?

Marketing managers and researchers alike realize that just because a consumer has a

positive attitude toward a product doesn’t mean that he will always purchase the product.

B. Behavioral Intentions Model [Instructor PPT Slides 13–16]

The behavioral intentions model, sometimes referred to as the theory of reasoned action, has

been offered as an improvement over the attitude-toward-the-object model. This model differs

from the attitude-toward-the-object model in a number of important ways.

First, rather than focusing explicitly on attitudes, the model focuses on intentions to act in

some way. Second, the model adds a component that assesses the consumer’s perceptions of

what other people think they should do. This is referred to as the subjective norm. Finally, the

model explicitly focuses on the consumer’s attitude toward the behavior of buying rather than

the attitude toward the object.

The formula for the behavioral intentions model is as follows:

( ) ( )

12behavior

B BI w A w SN = +

where B = behavior, BI = behavioral intention, Abehavior = attitude toward performing the

behavior (or Aact), SN = subjective norm, and w1, w2 = empirical weights.

This model states that a consumer’s behavior is influenced by the intention to perform that

Factors that Weaken Attitude-Behavior Relationship

Although consumer attitude models are very popular in consumer research, researchers

note that a number of factors can weaken the attitude-behavior relationship.

• As the length of time between attitude measurement and overt behavior grows, the

predictive ability of attitudinal models weakens.

Alternative Approaches to Attitude

One small variation of this theory is the theory of planned action, which expands upon

the behavioral intentions model by including a perceived control component. This

component assesses the difficulty involved in performing the behavior and the extent to

which the consumers perceive that they are in control of the product selection.

Expanding the Attitude Object

Research has shown that there is generally a positive relationship between a consumer’s

attitude toward an advertisement and her attitude toward a particular product. A growing

Attitude Tracking

Attitude tracking refers to the extent to which a company actively monitors its customers’

attitudes over time.

LO 7-5: Describe attitude change theories and their role in persuasion.

V. Attitude Change Theories and Persuasion [Instructor PPT Slides 17 and 18]

An important issue in the study of consumer behavior is how attitudes are changed. The term

persuasion refers to specific attempts to change attitudes. Usually, the hope is that by changing

beliefs or feelings, marketers can also change behavior. There are many different persuasive

techniques. These include the ATO approach, the behavioral influence approach, the schema-

based affect approach, the elaboration likelihood model, the balance theory approach, and the

social judgment theory approach.

A. Attitude-Toward-the-Object Approach

According to the ATO model, both beliefs about product attributes and evaluations of those

attributes play important roles in attitude formation. To change attitudes according to this

approach, marketers can attempt to change beliefs, create new beliefs about product features,

or change evaluations of product attributes.

Changing Beliefs

Marketers may attempt to change consumers’ beliefs. In this case, managers would need to

focus more on this attribute in advertisements. With each effort, the focus is on improving

the belief rating for an attribute that is evaluated positively. Another approach would be to

focus on decreasing the strength of belief regarding a negatively evaluated attribute.

Adding Beliefs about New Attributes

Another strategy for changing attitudes under the ATO approach is adding a salient

attribute to the product or service. Like the changing beliefs approach, this may require a

physical change to the product itself. At other times, the new beliefs may not be tied to an

actual new attribute. Rather, they may simply emphasize something that consumers had

previously not considered.

Changing Evaluations

Marketers may also attempt to change the evaluation of an attribute. Here, the marketer

tries to convince consumers that an attribute is not as positive (or negative) as they may

think. Changing evaluations of an attribute is usually more difficult than changing the

strength of a belief regarding that attribute. Quite simply, consumers know what they like,

and they make selections accordingly.

B. Behavioral Influence Approach

Another strategy commonly applied by marketers follows the Behavioral Influence hierarchy.

Marketers may use this approach in many ways. Behavioral conditioning can be very

effective. Consumers respond to marketing stimuli in certain ways, and behaviors frequently

result without either beliefs or affect changing first.

Q: The owner of Tracy’s Diner decided to revamp the entire place over a weekend. The

new décor included warm colors such as red, which are thought to increase hunger, and

softer lighting, which is thought to encourage customers to linger over their food and

thus buy more. The owner’s intention was to increase the volume of purchases by

regular customers who visited the diner on weekdays. In this scenario, which kind of

approach is the owner using? Explain.

C. Changing Schema-Based Affect

From an attitude perspective, schema-based affect refers to the idea that schemas contain

affective and emotional meanings. If the affect found in a schema can be changed, then the

attitude toward a brand or product will change as well.

D. The Elaboration Likelihood Model [Instructor PPT Slides 19–20]

Another popular approach for conceptualizing attitude change is found in the elaboration

likelihood model. The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) illustrates how attitudes are

changed based on differing levels of consumer involvement. Numerous research studies have

The Central Route

If consumers find that the incoming message is particularly relevant to their situation (and

thus highly involved), they will likely expend considerable effort in comprehending the

message. In this case, high-involvement processing occurs, and the central route to

persuasion is activated. Here, the consumer develops a number of thoughts (or cognitive

responses) regarding the incoming message that may either support or contradict the

information.

The Peripheral Route

If consumers are not involved with a message or lack either the motivation or ability to

process information, the peripheral route to persuasion will be followed. In this route,

consumers are unlikely to develop cognitive responses to the message (either supporting

message. These elements of the message (that is, nonproduct-related information) are

referred to as peripheral cues.

Low-Involvement Processing in the Consumer Environment

Vast majority of advertisements to which consumers are exposed are processed with low-

involvement processing. Consumers are simply not motivated to carefully attend to the

E. Balance Theory [Instructor PPT Slides 21 and 22]

The balance theory approach was introduced by social psychologist Fritz Heider. The basic

premise of balance theory is that consumers are motivated to maintain perceived consistency

in the relations found in mental systems. Accordingly, this approach is based on the

consistency principle. This principle states that human beings prefer consistency among their

beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. An example is shown in Exhibit 7.6.

F. Social Judgment Theory [Instructor PPT Slides 23 and 24]

Social judgment theory is yet another theory for explaining attitude change. This theory

proposes that consumers compare incoming information to their existing attitudes about a

particular object or issue. The initial attitude acts as a frame of reference, or standard, against

which the incoming message is compared. Around these initial reference points are latitudes

of acceptance and latitudes of rejection. For a message to fall within the latitude of

acceptance, the information presented must be perceived as being close to the original attitude

position. A message that is perceived as being far away from, or opposed to, the original

attitude position will fall within the latitude of rejection. These aspects of the theory are

presented in Exhibit 7.7.

LO 7-6: Understand how message and source effects influence persuasion.

VI. Message and Source Effects and Persuasion [Instructor PPT Slide 25]

An important part of understanding persuasion is comprehending how communication occurs.

The term message effects is used to describe how the appeal of a message and its construction

affect persuasion. Source effects refer to the characteristics of the person or character delivering

a message that influence persuasion. A basic communication model is shown in Exhibit 7.8.

A. Interactive Communications

The one-to-many communications model works well when examining personal

communications or traditional advertising media such as television, newspapers, or radio.

However, interactive communications have radically changed the communication paradigm.

Importantly, information flow is no longer considered a “one–way street,” in which consumers

B. Message Appeal

There are several ways to conceptualize how a message may impact the persuasiveness of an

advertisement. A number of appeals are used by advertisers including sex appeals, humor

appeals, and fear appeals.

Sex Appeals

Using sexual imagery in advertisements certainly is popular in many parts of the world.

Moderate levels of nudity appear to be most preferred, as highly explicit content tends to

direct attention away from the product. Gender plays a role in advertising effectiveness

regarding nudity. Finally, research also reveals that including a romantic theme (rather than

focusing on the explicit pleasure of sex) may have positive benefits for marketers.

Humor Appeals

Marketers also frequently use humorous ads. One recent study confirmed that humorous

ads can attract attention, create a positive mood, and enhance both attitude toward a brand

and purchase intentions. However, humor appeals can also decrease the credibility of a

Fear Appeals

In addition to using sexual and humor appeals, advertisers also frequently attempt to evoke

some level of fear in their target audiences as a means of changing attitudes and behaviors.

These ads often rely on the relationship between a threat (an undesirable consequence of

behavior) and fear (an emotional response). The product being advertised is often

promoted as a type of a solution that will remove the threat. As an overall statement, fear

appeals appear to be effective when they:

Violence Appeals

One trend that has been growing over the last few decades is the use of violent scenes in

advertisements. The effects on viewers often go beyond marketing-related reactions. It is

interesting to note that many violent ads also use elements of humor, seemingly in an

attempt to lessen the degree to which the ad is disturbing.

Q: Ask students to review ten current advertisements on TV and identify the kind of

appeal each ad uses.

C. Message Construction

Advertisers must consider a number of issues when constructing a message. Listed below are

a number of questions that marketers must answer.

• Should an ad present a conclusion or should the consumer be allowed to reach his own

conclusion?

Advertisements that allow consumers to arrive at their own conclusions tend to be more

persuasive when the audience has a high level of involvement with the product.

• Should comparative ads that directly compare one brand against another be developed?

Advertisers generally have three alternatives when developing an ad.

• Where should important information be placed?

The placement of information in a specific message at the beginning, middle, or end of

the message impacts the recall of the information. This is a basic tenet of what is known

as the serial position effect.

• Should the message be straightforward and simple, or complex?

D. Source Effects [Instructor PPT Slide 26]

Another important issue in the study of persuasion is how the source of a message (a

spokesperson or model, for example) influences consumers’ attitudes.

Source Credibility

Source credibility plays an important role in advertising effectiveness. In general, credible

sources tend to be more persuasive than less credible sources. However, credible sources

Credibility consists of two elements: expertise and trustworthiness.

• Expertise refers to the amount of knowledge that a spokesperson is perceived to have

about the product or issue in question.

• Trustworthiness refers to a perception of the extent to which a spokesperson is

presenting a message that he or she truly believes, with no reason to present false

information.

Source Attractiveness

Source attractiveness is another quality that has received a great deal of attention.

Attractive models are often thought to possess desirable qualities and personalities. They

also tend to be more persuasive than unattractive spokespeople. Much like the research

Source Likeability

Source likeability also affects a spokesperson’s effectiveness. Likeable sources tend to be

persuasive. Interestingly, it has been found that source likeability affects persuasion more

for consumers with low need for cognition than for those with a high degree of this trait.

This again highlights the importance of individual difference variables in persuasion.

Source Meaningfulness

The dominant characteristics of a source should match the characteristics of the product.

This is a key concept that is found in the matchup hypothesis, which states that a source

feature is most effective when it is matched with relevant products.

Q: Ask students to identify a few ads for brands that have been endorsed by celebrities.

What is the effect of the celebrity’s attractiveness, likeability, and meaningfulness on the

customer perception of the brand?

Video material for this chapter is starting on page 24 of the IM

End of Chapter Material

Review Questions

(*) Indicates material on prep cards.

1. What is meant by the term “consumer attitudes”? Why do you think attitudes play such an

important role in consumer behavior?

2. *Describe the ABC approach to consumer attitudes. How do the various components apply

to your daily life as a consumer?

3. Using your own examples, explain the four functions of attitudes that are presented in this

chapter.

4. Why do you think the functions of attitudes are important to consumer researchers?

Provide examples of the ways in which you have used each function.

7. Describe the components of the ATO model. How would you apply the model to your

attitude formation process? Give an example.

8. Describe the theory of reasoned action. In what situations do you think the approach would

apply most effectively to a consumer situation?

9. What are the major attitude change theories? Using an example of your own, discuss the

following attitude change theories and how they have applied to a purchase or consumer

situation that you have faced: the elaboration likelihood model, balance theory, and social

judgment theory.

10. *How can marketers attempt to change beliefs or evaluations directly? How effective do

you think these attempts can be?

11. Summarize the major types of message appeals and source effects. Describe products that

are often advertised using the various message appeals.