CHAPTER 6
Consumer Attitude Formation and Change
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
6.1 To understand how consumers’ attitudes influence their decision-making.
6.3 To understand how to apply multi-attribute models to change consumers’ attitudes.
6.5 To understand the cognitive elaboration and the two routes to persuasion.
6.7 To understand how people assign causality to events.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Learning Objective 6.1: To understand how consumers’ attitudes influence their decision-
making.
An attitude is a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or unfavorable
way toward a given object. In the context of consumer behavior, the term object is
interpreted broadly to include the product, brand, service, price, package, advertisement,
promotional medium, retailer selling the product, and many other aspects. Attitudes are
learned from direct experience with the product, word-of-mouth, exposure to mass media,
and other information sources. Attitudes reflect either favorable or unfavorable evaluations
of the attitude object and they motivate consumers either to buy or not to buy particular
products or brands. Consumers buy products toward which they have favorable
inclinations, so marketers must ensure that consumers maintain positive attitudes following
purchases and remain loyal customers.
Learning Objective 6.2: To understand the tri-component attitude model.
The tri-component attitude model proposes that attitudes consist of three components:
cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component represents the knowledge and
perceptions of the features of an attitude object. The affective component reflects emotions
and feelings, which are considered evaluations, because they capture the person’s global
Learning Objective 6.3: To understand how to apply multi-attribute models to change
consumers’ attitudes.
Multiattribute attribute models portray consumers’ attitudes as functions of their
assessments of the objects’ prominent features. These multiattribute models include the
attitude-toward-object model, the attitude-toward-behavior model, the theory of reasoned
Learning Objective 6.4: To understand how to alter consumers’ attitudes by making
particular needs prominent.
Altering attitudes according to consumer motivations is termed the functional approach,
Learning Objective 6.5: To understand cognitive elaboration and the two routes to
persuasion.
Attitudes can sometimes be changed by either one of two different routes to persuasion,
depending on the degree of cognitive elaboration used when consumers process
information. The central route requires extensive thought and cognitive processing and is
Learning Objective 6.6: To understand cognitive dissonance and resolving cognitive
conflicts.
In most cases, attitudes precede and guide behavior. Sometimes, consumers act first and
only afterward do they develop attitudes about actions already undertaken, which creates
conflicting thoughts about the attitude object known as cognitive dissonance. Because
important purchase decisions (i.e., buying a new home) require compromise and choices
Learning Objective 6.7: To understand how people assign causality to events.
People assign causality (i.e., blame or credit) to events, their own behaviors, and the
behaviors of others. The way people see themselves is reflected in the causalities they form
about prior behaviors and the attitudes they develop thereafter. In trying to change
consumption-related attitudes, especially with regard to products that require self-
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction
1. An attitude is a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or
unfavorable way with respect to a given object.
a) Attitudes are learned from direct experience with the product, word-of-mouth,
exposure to mass media and other information sources.
b) Attitudes reflect favorable or unfavorable evaluations of the attitude object.
2. People are often unreceptive to the unfamiliar.
3. Attitudes can be related to social or cultural events.
***** Use Key Terms attitude and word-of-mouth Here; Use Figure 6.1 Here *****
Attitude Formation
1. By studying consumers’ attitudes, marketers can determine whether consumers will
2. Attitudes are directed at objects.
a) Object refers to such things as: product, product category, brand, service,
4. Attitudes are formed as a result of direct experience with the product, information
acquired from others, and exposure to mass media, the Internet, and various forms of
direct marketing.
***** Use Learning Objective #6.1 Here; Use Review and Discussion Questions #6.1
and 6.2 Here*****
6. Similar attitudes consistently lead to the same behaviors.
7. Consumer attitudes occur within, and are affected by, the situation.
***** Use Table #6.1 Here*****
The Tri-Component Attitude Model
1. Psychologists have sought to construct models that capture the underlying dimensions
of an attitude. The focus has been on specifying the composition of an attitude to better
2. According to the tri-component attitude model, attitudes consist of three major
components: the cognitive component, the affective component and the conative
component.
a) Cognitions are knowledge and perceptions that are acquired by a combination of
direct experience with the attitude object and related information from various
sources.
i) This previous knowledge and perceptions commonly take the form of beliefs
ii) The consumer believes that the attitude object possesses various attributes
and that specific behavior will lead to specific outcomes.
b) The affective component of an attitude consists of the consumer’s emotions or
feelings which are considered evaluations.
i) Affect-laden experiences manifest themselves as emotionally charged states
(such as happiness or sadness).
c) Conation, the final component of the tri-component attitude model, is concerned
with the likelihood or tendency that an individual will undertake a specific action
or behave in a particular way with regard to the attitude object.
i) The conative component may include the actual behavior itself.
ii) In marketing and consumer research, the conative component is frequently
treated as an expression of the consumer’s intention to buy.
iii) Intention to buy scales are used to assess the likelihood of a consumer
purchasing a product or behaving in a certain way.
3. Altering consumer attitudes is an important marketing strategy.
a) In these market situations, marketers have an opportunity to persuade consumer’s
to “crossover,” or to shift their favorable attitude toward another version of the
product.
b) Changing beliefs about products is the most common form of advertising appeal.
i) Advertisers constantly remind us that their product has “more,” or is “better,”
or “best” in terms of some important product attribute.
ii) Information suggesting a change in attitude needs to be compelling and
repeated enough to overcome the natural resistance to letting go of
established attitudes.
c) Changing brand image attempts to alter consumers’ overall assessment of the
brand.
d) Changing consumer beliefs about competitive brands or product categories is
another attitude-change strategy.
Multi-Attribute Attitude Models
1. Multi-attribute attitude models portray consumers’ attitudes with regard to an
2. There are many variations of the attitude model, five to consider are: attitude-toward-
object model, attitude-toward-behavior model, the theory-of-reasoned-action
model, the theory of trying-to-consume, and the attitude-toward-the-ad-model.
a) According to the attitude-toward-object model, the consumer’s attitude toward
a product or specific brands of a product is a function of
i) the presence (or absence) and evaluation of certain product-specific beliefs
and/or attributes.
ii) The importance of each of these attributes
*****Use Learning Objective 6.3 Here; Use Key Terms multi-attribute attitude models,
attitude-toward-object model, attitude-toward-behavior model, theory-of-reasoned-
action model, theory of trying-to-consume model and attitude-toward-the-ad model
Here; Use Figure #6.8 Here*****
b) Attitudes can be changed by
i) Adding a previously ignored attribute or adding an attribute that reflects an
actual product or technological innovation.
b) Sometimes eliminating a characteristic or feature has the same
enhancing outcome as adding a characteristic or attribute.
ii) Changing the perceived importance of attributes
iii) Developing new products
***** Use Figures #6.9A, #6.9B, and #6.10 Here; Use Tables 6.3A and 6.3B Here*****
c) The attitude-toward-behavior model is designed to capture the individual’s
attitude toward behaving or acting with respect to an object, rather than the
d) The theory-of-reasoned-action incorporates a cognitive component, an affective
component, and a conative component arranged in a pattern different from that of
the tri-component model.
i) It includes subjective norms that influence an individual’s intention to act
before measuring intentions.
ii) Subjective norms are based on normative beliefs and motivation to comply
with the preferences of relevant others.
e) The theory of trying–to-consume is designed to account for the cases where the
*****Use Figure #6-11 Here; Use Review and Discussion Question #6.4 Here*****
f) As the attitude-toward-the-ad model depicts, the consumer forms various
feelings as the result of exposure to an ad that impact attitudes towards the brands
advertised.
*****Use Key Terms attitude-toward-the-ad and attitudes-toward-social-media posts
Here; Use Hands-on Assignments #6.10 and #6.11 Here*****
Attitudes’ Motivational Functions
2. One method for doing this is called the functional approach and suggests attitudes can
be classified into four functions: the utilitarian function, the ego-defensive function, the
value-expressive function, and the knowledge function.
a) The utilitarian function stems from the belief that consumers’ attitudes reflect
the utilities that brands provide.
i) When a product has been useful or helped us n the past, our attitude toward it
tends to be favorable.
ii) One way of changing attitudes in favor of a product is by showing people that
it can serve a utilitarian purpose they may not have considered.
3. It is possible to alter attitudes toward products by pointing out their relationships to
worthy objects or causes.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model
1. The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) involves a more global view that two
different persuasive routes change attitudes.
a) The central and peripheral routs to persuasion reflect extensive problem solving
and limited problem solving, which correspond with high-involvement and low-
involvement purchases.
b) The central route to persuasion is particularly relevant to attitude change when a
consumer’s motivation or ability to assess the attitude object is high; that is,
attitude change occurs because the consumer actively seeks out information
relevant to the attitude object itself.
c) When consumers are willing to exert the effort to comprehend, learn, or evaluate
the available information about the attitude object, learning and attitude change
occur via the central route.
2. Research indicates that even in low-involvement conditions (e.g., like exposure to most
advertising), where both central and secondary inducements are initially equal in their
ability to evoke similar attitudes, it is the central inducement that has the greatest
“staying power”—that is, over time it is more persistent.
*****Use Learning Objective 6.5 Here; Use Key Terms elaboration likelihood model
(ELM), central route to persuasion, peripheral route to persuasion, extensive
problem solving, and limited problem solving Here *****
Cognitive Dissonance and Conflict Resolution
1. According to cognitive dissonance theory, discomfort or dissonance occurs when a
consumer holds conflicting thoughts about a belief or an attitude object.
2. Post-purchase dissonance occurs after the purchase.
a) Purchase decisions often require compromise.
b) Post-purchase dissonance is quite normal.
3. Tactics that consumers can use to reduce dissonance include reduction:
a) By rationalizing the decision as being wise
4. Marketers can help reduce postpurchase uncertainty by aiming specific messages at
reinforcing consumer decisions by complimenting their wisdom, offering stronger
guarantees or warranties, increasing the number and effectiveness of its services, or
providing detailed brochures on how to use its products correctly.
*****Use Learning Objective 6.6 Here; Use Key Terms cognitive dissonance and post-
purchase dissonance Here; Use Review and Discussion Question #6.8 Here; Use
Hands-on Assignment #6.13 Here*****
5. Attitude-change strategies are designed to resolve actual or potential cognitive conflicts
between two attitudes.
Causality and Attribution
2. Self-perception attribution addresses individuals’ inferences or judgments as to the
cause of their own behavior.
a) Attitudes develop as consumers look at and make judgments about their own
behavior.
b) These judgments can be divided into internal, external, and defensive attributions.
c) Internal attribution—giving yourself credit for the outcomes—your ability, your
skill, or your effort.
d) External attribution—the purchase was good because of factors beyond your
control—luck, etc.
e) Defensive attribution—consumers are likely to accept credit personally for
success, and to credit failure to others or to outside events.
3. Foot-in-the-door technique—the foot-in-the-door technique is based on the premise
that individuals look at their prior behaviors (e.g., compliance with a minor request)
and conclude that they are the kind of person who says “Yes” to such requests (i.e., an
internal attribution).
a) Such self-attribution serves to increase the likelihood that they will agree to a
similar, more substantial request.
c) It appears that different size incentives create different degrees of internal
attribution that, in turn, lead to different amounts of attitude change.
i) It is not the biggest incentive that is most likely to lead to positive attitude
change.
ii) What seems most effective is a moderate incentive, one that is just big
enough to stimulate initial purchase of the brand but still small enough to
encourage consumers to internalize their positive usage experience and allow
a positive attitude change to occur.
*****Use Key Terms foot-in-the-door technique and door-in-the face technique Here
*****
5. Every time a person asks “Why?” about a statement or action of another or “others”—a
6. It is in the area of judging product performance that consumers are most likely to form
product attributions toward objects.
a) Specifically, they want to find out why a product meets or fails to meet their
expectations.
7. Individuals acquire conviction about attributions by collecting additional information
in an attempt to confirm (or disconfirm) prior inferences.
REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
6.1 Explain how situational factors are likely to influence the degree of consistency
between attitudes and behavior.
Although attitudes may be relatively consistent with behavior, they are influenced by
situational factors, such as time, place, and social environment. A person’s attitudes
may lead to one kind of behavior in one situation and a different behavior in a different
6.2 Because attitudes are learned predispositions to respond in particular ways, why
don’t marketers and consumer researchers measure only purchase behavior and
ignore attitudes?
Knowledge of attitudes is valuable because attitudes can be used to predict behavior
before it occurs. In addition, attitudes have several components, such as perceptions,
evaluations, and intentions. By knowing the strength of these components, we can plan
marketing strategies designed to affect these components. Therefore, measurement of
6.3 Explain a person’s attitude toward visiting Disney World in terms of the tri–
component attitude model.
The first component of the tri-component attitude model consists of a person’s
cognitions; that is, the knowledge and perceptions that are acquired by a combination
6.4 How can the marketer of a “nicotine patch” (a device which assists individuals to
quit smoking) use the theory of trying to consume? Using this theory, identify two
segments of smokers that the marketer should target and explain how to do so.
The theory of trying is designed to account for the many cases (including
consumption situations) where the action or outcome is not certain, but instead reflects
the consumer’s attempts to consume. According to this theory, a person who attempts
to quit smoking combines personal impediments (i.e., liking the act of smoking) and
environmental impediments (i.e., situations where others smoke) that might prevent the
desired action or outcome from occurring. The model also proposes that the frequency
of past trying, that is, the consumer’s prior experience with trying to quit smoking,
6.5 Explain how the product manager of a breakfast cereal might change consumer
attitudes toward the company’s brand by (a) changing beliefs about the brand, (b)
changing beliefs about competing brands, (c) changing the relative evaluation of
attributes, and (d) adding an attribute.
(a) Changing brand beliefs is the most common advertising appeal. If this approach is
used, the cereal ads should tell consumers that the product has more vitamins and fiber
6.6 The Department of Transportation of a large city is launching an advertising
campaign that encourages people to switch from private cars to mass transit. How
can the department can use the following strategies to change commuters’
attitudes: (a) changing the basic motivational function, (b) changing beliefs about
public transportation, (c) using self-perception theory, and (d) using cognitive
dissonance.
(a) The functional approach will entail changing beliefs regarding mass transit along
one or more of the basic motivational functions of attitudes; appealing to the
knowledge function by showing how one might get to work faster by using mass transit
rather than a private car. (b) According to the assimilation contrast theory, the
6.7 Should the marketer of a popular computer graphics program prefer consumers
to make internal or external attributions? Explain your answer.
Internal and external attribution indicates whether consumers assign the cause for
successful or unsuccessful experiences with a product, to themselves, or to the product.
For example, if consumers use external attribution to explain a good experience with
6.8 A college student has just purchased a new Apple iPad. What factors might cause
the student to experience post-purchase dissonance? How might the student try to
overcome it? How can the retailer who sold the iPad help reduce the student’s
dissonance? How can the iPad’s manufacturer help?
Although attitudes may be relatively consistent with behavior, they are influenced by
situational factors, such as time, place, and social environment. A person’s attitudes
may lead to one kind of behavior in one situation and a different behavior in a different
HANDS-ON ASSIGNMENTS
6.9 Find two print ads, one illustrating the use of the affective component and the
other illustrating the cognitive component. Discuss each ad in the context of the
tri-component model. Why has each marketer taken the approach it did?
Instructor’s Discussion
This assignment is designed to demonstrate that sometimes marketers try to form an
overall favorable evaluation (i.e., appealing to the affective component) without
6.10 What sources influenced your attitudes about this course before it started? Has
your initial attitude changed since the course started? If so, how?
Instructor’s Discussion
The sources of influence in attitude formation are: (a) personal experience with the
product or service; (b) advertisements for various brands; (c) group influences (e.g.,
6.11 Describe a situation in which you acquired an attitude toward a new product
through exposure to an advertisement. Describe a situation in which you formed
an attitude toward a product or brand on the basis of personal influence.
Instructor’s Discussion
Students’ answers will vary. Their response regarding advertising influence should
include several elements: (a) the advertising medium involved; (b) an indication of
whether the attitude was positive or negative; (c) whether the advertisement was
6.12 Find advertisements that illustrate each of the four motivational functions of
attitudes. Describe how each ad either reinforces an existing attitude or is aimed
at changing an attitude.
Instructor’s Discussion
The ad for the utilitarian function should stress the product’s usage–related benefits
(e.g., durable shoes). The ego defensive function should reinforce the consumer’s self–
6.13 Think back to the time when you were selecting a college. Did you experience
dissonance immediately after you made a decision? Why or why not? If you did
experience dissonance, how did you resolve it?
Instructor’s Discussion
Selecting a college is a personal, extensive, high-involvement decision which often
S.T.A.R. PROJECTS
Ethical Issues in Consumer Behavior
S.T.A.R. Project #1
The Tellus Institute (www.tellus.org) is sponsored by foundations, government agencies,
multilateral organizations, non-governmental organizations, and business. The primary
mission of this institute is to aid our country in navigating the transition toward ways of
producing, consuming, and living that bequeath a sustainable world to future generations.
a. Visit the Tellus Institute Web site. Write a one-page paper that describes how this
organization seeks to influence attitudes and opinions.
b. What consumer and business ethics issues seem to be most important to this
organization?
c. Do organizations such as Tellus advance the cause of business ethics? Explain.
Instructor’s Discussion
Small Group Project
S.T.A.R. Project #2
Opinions are formed from attitudes and beliefs. Part of the opinion process is the
comparison of something. Have your group go to Epinions.com (www.epinions.com) to
explore how comparisons are made in a variety of product fields. Divide the group into
smaller groups and examine the rankings for the products and services found on the
Instructor’s Discussion
Epinions.com has a wealth of information. This group exercise is a good one to see how
comparison and evaluation processes work and how these processes might impact
attitudes. For example, let us say that a student did not know much about DVD players. He
S.T.A.R. Project #3
Some marketing firms work toward forming attitudes in the minds of their consumers.
Others work toward changing those attitudes. Strategies for attitude change are extremely
interesting, especially if you consider how many attitudes might need to be changed to
persuade a brand loyal consumer to switch brands. A perfect example of this is the ongoing
struggle between Campbell’s Soup (www.campbellsoup.com) and industry rival Progresso
Soup (www.progressosoup.com). Your assignment is to visit both Web sites and make a
list of attitude change strategies being employed by both companies. Evaluate the success
of each. Which competitor seems to be most adept with respect to change? Comment.
Instructor’s Discussion
The rivalry between Campbell’s and Progresso is well known. Progresso has labeled
Campbell’s as watery and consisting of small portions. Campbell’s has labeled Progresso
as too spicy and too expensive. Both claims are built on fact and fiction. Students should