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include the following:
• Difficulty of the task
• Stimuli needed to elicit the response
• Amount of information needed from the respondent
• Research topic sensitivity
Topic sensitivity is the degree to which a specific survey question leads the respondent to
give a socially acceptable response. When asked about a sensitive issue, some respondents
will feel they should give a socially acceptable response even if they actually feel or behave
otherwise.
C. Respondent Characteristics (PPT slides 5-14 and 5-15)
Since most marketing research projects target prespecified groups of people, the third major
factor in selecting the appropriate survey method is the respondents’ characteristics (PPT slide
5-14). The extent to which members of the target group of respondents share common
characteristics influences the survey method selected.
The incidence rate is the percentage of the general population that is the focus of the
research. Sometimes researchers are interested in a segment of the general population that is
relatively large and the incidence rate is high. Normally, the incidence rate is expressed as a
percentage. Thus, an incidence rate of 5 percent means that 5 out of 100 members of the
general population have the qualifying characteristics sought in a given study.
Respondent participation involves the following three components:
• The respondent’s ability to participate—ability to participate refers to the ability of
both interviewers and respondents to get together in a question-and-answer interchange.
The ability of respondents to share thoughts with interviewers is an important selection
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Marketing researchers have developed “best practices” to increase participation levels. Some
of which include offering of some type of incentive and personally delivering questionnaires
to potential respondents.
VI. Causal Research Designs (PPT slide 5-16 and 5-17)
Causal research designs differ from exploratory or descriptive research designs in several ways.
These include the following:
• The primary focus of causal research is to obtain data that enables researchers to assess
“cause–effect” relationships between two or more variables.
research studies and stated as “If X, then Y.”
The following three fundamental conditions must exist in order to accurately conclude that a
cause-effect relationship exists between variables:
• Researchers must establish that there is temporal order between the independent X and the
dependent Y variables such that variable X (or a change in X) must occur prior to
observing or measuring variable Y (or a change in Y).
Another difference between causal and descriptive research is that causal research requires
researchers to collect data using experimental designs. An experiment involves carefully
designed data collection procedures in which researchers manipulate a proposed causal
independent variable and observe (measure) the proposed effect on a dependent variable, while
controlling all other influencing variables. Exploratory and survey research designs typically lack
the “control” mechanism of causal designs. Typically, researchers use either a controlled
laboratory environment where the study is conducted in an artificial setting where the effect of
A third difference is the framing of research questions for causal designs. In exploratory and
survey research designs, initial research questions are typically framed broadly and hypotheses
focus on the magnitude and/or direction of the association, and not on causality. In contrast,
questions examining causal relationships between variables are framed with the focus being on
the specific impact (or influence) one variable causes on another variable.
A. The Nature of Experimentation (PPT slides 5-18 and 5-19)
Exploratory and descriptive research designs are useful for many types of studies. But they do
not verify causal links between marketing variables. In contrast, experiments are causal
research designs and can explain cause-and-effect relationships between variables/constructs
and determine why events occur.
Experimental research is primarily a hypothesis-testing method that examines hypotheses
about relationships between independent and dependent variables. Researchers develop
hypotheses and then design an experiment to test them. To do so, researchers must identify
the independent variables that might bring about changes in one or more dependent variables.
Experiments and other causal designs are most appropriate when the researcher wants to find
out why certain events occur, and why they happen under certain conditions and not others.
Experiments provide stronger evidence of causal relationships than exploratory or descriptive
designs because of the control made possible by causal research designs.
Experiments enable marketing researchers to control the research situation so that causal
relationships among the variables can be examined. In a typical experiment, the independent
variable is manipulated (changed) and its effect on another variable (dependent variable) is
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B. Validity Concerns with Experimental Research (PPT slide 5-20)
In any type of research design, but particularly in causal designs, researchers must understand
validity and take steps to ensure they have achieved it. Validity is the extent to which the
conclusions drawn from a particular research design, such as an experiment are true (PPT
slide 5-20).
External validity means the results of the experiment can be generalized to the target
population. Random selection of subjects and random assignment to treatment conditions are
usually necessary for external validity, but they are not necessarily sufficient to confirm that
the findings can be generalized.
C. Comparing Laboratory and Field Experiments (PPT slide 5-21)
Marketing researchers use the following two types of experiments (PPT slide 5-21):
• Laboratory—laboratory (lab) experiments are causal research designs that are
conducted in an artificial setting. It enables the researcher to control the setting and
therefore achieve high internal validity. But the trade-off is that laboratory experiments
lack external validity.
Besides realism and control, the three other issues to consider when deciding whether to use a
field experiment are as follows:
• Time frames: Field experiments take longer to complete than laboratory experiments.
The planning stage—which can include determining which test market cities to use and
which retailers to approach with product experiments, securing advertising time, and
coordinating the distribution of the experimental product—adds to the length of time
needed to conduct field experiments.
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or by rushing similar products to market. If secrecy is desired, then laboratory
experiments are generally more effective.
D. Test Marketing (PPT slide 5-22)
Test marketing is the use of experiments to obtain information on market performance
indicators (PPT slide 5-22). For example, marketing mix variables (product, price, place, and
promotion) are manipulated and changes in dependent variables such as sales volume or
website traffic are measured.
Test marketing, often referred to as a controlled field experiment, has three broad applications
in marketing research as follows:
• Test marketing has long been used to pilot test new product introductions or product
modifications.
The main objectives of test marketing are as follows:
• to predict sales
• to identify possible customer reactions
• to anticipate adverse consequences of marketing programs
Test marketing measures the sales potential of a product or service and evaluates variables in
the marketing mix.
Marketing Research Dashboard
Riders Fits New Database into Brand Launch (PPT slide 5-23 and 5-24)
The Marketing Research Dashboard provides a discussion of how Lee Apparel Company used
market test data from a field experiment to build a customer database which then helped them in
Answers to Hands-On Exercise
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1. What was Lee Apparel Company’s overall goal for conducting such an extensive test
market of its new line of jeans under the brand name “Riders”? In your opinion did the
company achieve its goal? Why, or why not?
Lee wanted to use the benefits of a customer database to ensure a successful brand launch
2. Identify and explain the strengths and weaknesses associated with the test market process
used by the Lee Apparel Company.
The strengths are apparent based on the results Lee accomplished for its Riders brand,
3. In your opinion, should the company give consideration to the development and
implementation of Internet-based test marketing strategies? Why, or why not?
Answers to Review Questions
1. Identify and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using quantitative survey
research methods to collect primary data in marketing research.
The following are the primary pros associated with using quantitative survey research
methods.
• It has the ability to distinguish small differences and capture data from larger
samples at less cost.
The following are the downsides of collecting primary raw data via survey research
methods.
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• Constructs and scales, when improperly constructed can lead to GIGO (garbage in,
garbage out).
2. What are the three factors that affect choice of appropriate survey method? How do these
factors differ in person-administered surveys as opposed to self-administered surveys?
Researchers must consider situational, task, and respondent factors when choosing a survey
method. The situational factors include the budget, completion time frame, and quality
requirements.
Task factors include the following:
• task difficulty
Respondent characteristics include the following:
• diversity
• incidence rate
Person-administered surveys are more expensive and take longer to complete but are best
for difficult tasks requiring stimuli. Self-administered surveys are best for sensitive topics
and when participants are able, willing, and knowledgeable.
3. Explain why survey designs that include a trained interviewer are more appropriate than
computer-assisted survey designs in situations where the task difficulty and stimuli
requirements are extensive.
When it is difficult to complete a questionnaire (due to the nature of the directions;
constructs; and scales associated with queries, or the length of a survey), computer-assisted
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4. Explain the major differences between in-home interviews and mall-intercept interviews.
Make sure you include their advantages and disadvantages.
A mall-intercept is a face-to-face personal interview which takes place in a shopping mall.
In-home interviews speak of data that is captured in the “comfort” of one’s home. The
word “comfort” is important here. Today, we live in a society where more people work
A mall-intercept has an advantage that many more people can be canvassed in a shorter
period of time, reducing costs to the research team and client. However, mall-intercept
suffers from the following two problems:
• The people in the mall may not be closely aligned with the target market in question.
• The people in the mall come to browse and shop, not to speak to an interviewer—so
there may be a response rate problem.
On the other hand, if the interview requires a good deal of equipment (recorders,
projectors, computers, or test-products) a mall may be the best place from a logistical
standpoint.
5. How might measurement and design errors affect respondent errors?
6. Develop three recommendations to help researchers increase the response rates in direct
mail and telephone-administered surveys.
Response rates can be enhanced using several techniques. The following are commonly
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used to increase response rates in direct mail and telephone-administered surveys.
7. What is “nonresponse”? Identify four types of nonresponse found in surveys.
“Nonresponse” refers to the lack of response from units in the sample. It may be caused by
refusals or by problems reaching the unit. It’s a systematic bias that occurs when the final
sample differs from the planned sample, usually due to some of the preselected
respondents’ failure to participate. Nonresponse error limits the generalizability of the
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages associated with online surveys?
Online surveys take less time in data collection and relatively cost less. They also offer
more information on the response process because of the meta-data collected in web logs.
9. How might a faulty problem definition error affect the implementation of a mail survey?
If the problem is not correctly defined, it is likely that wrong questions will be asked. It is
also likely that wrong respondents will be questioned. The results of the research will not
10. Explain the difference between internal validity and external validity.
Internal validity refers to the extent to which the research design accurately identifies
causal relationships, while external validity means the results of the experiment can be
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11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of field experiments?
A field experiment is performed in a natural setting, which is more realistic but provides a
Answers to Discussion Questions
1. Develop a list of the factors used to select from person-administered, telephone-
administered, self-administered, and computer-assisted survey designs. Then discuss the
appropriateness of those selection factors across each type of survey design.
The factors relevant in selecting the appropriate data collection method are listed below.
• Situational factors
o Budget
• Task factors
o Task difficulty
o Stimuli needed to elicit the response
o Amount of information needed from the respondent
o Research topic sensitivity
• Respondent factors
o Diversity
2. What impact, if any, will advances in technology have on survey research practices?
Support your thoughts.
Telecommunications and computer technology have already affected survey research
practices. Already, most survey-based marketing research is conducted online. Further,
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mobile phone surveys are being tested and pursued and are likely to experience growth in
the near future. Online focus groups are also becoming increasingly popular.
Language differences might make the work of researchers difficult because they have to
make sure that all participants interpret the question in the way the researchers want them
to. Coordinating the researches will also pose a challenge because of the number of
participants involved. Students’ answers will vary. However, they should address the
points mentioned above.
Wireless surveys enable surveying wherever respondents may be at the point of purchase.
They can deliver many of the benefits that are similar to online surveys. However, there is
also a potential bias given that respondents may be distracted by uncontrolled stimuli
during the survey. It may also be difficult to encourage responses.
5. Comment on the ethics of the following situations:
a. A researcher plans to use invisible ink to code his direct mail questionnaires to
identify those respondents who return the questionnaire.
Generally, survey respondents are assured that their input will be held confidential
and their identities protected. Secretly coding the survey instruments violates those
b. A telephone interviewer calls at 10:00 p.m. on a Sunday and asks to conduct an
interview.
People might not respond to a call at 10:00 p.m. on a Sunday. Some people are hard
to be interviewed at home. Unless interviewer has made prior arrangements, this can
be considered an unreasonable time for a call. This is not so much a matter of ethics
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as it is of practical courtesy and consideration. Students’ answers will vary.
c. A manufacturer purchases 100,000 e-mail addresses from a national e-mail
distribution house and plans to e-mail out a short sales promotion under the heading
of “We Want to Know Your Opinions.”
6. The store manager of a local independent grocery store thought customers might stay in the
store longer if slow, easy-to-listen-to music were played over the store’s intercom system.
After some thought, the manager considered whether he should hire a marketing researcher
to design an experiment to test the influence of music tempo on shoppers’ behaviors.
Answer the following questions:
a. How would you operationalize the independent variable?
The independent variable is music tempo. It can be operationalized as slow,
moderate, or fast. However, the experiment may also want to examine specific types
of music (classical, jazz, easy listening, and so on).
b. What dependent variables do you think might be important in this experiment?
The following are the dependent variables that might be important in this experiment.
• The average amount spent per visit per customer
c. Develop a hypothesis for each of your dependent variables.
The following are alternate hypotheses:
• The average amount spent per visit will be higher when the background music
is slow than when background music is fast.