CHAPTER 2
CROSS-CULTURAL VARIATIONS
IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1: Define the concept of culture
LO3: Understand cross-cultural variations in nonverbal communications
LO4: Summarize key aspects of the global youth culture
LO5: Understand the role of global demographics
SUMMARY
LO1: Define the concept of culture
Culture is defined as the complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals,
customs, and any other capabilities acquired by humans as members of society. It includes
LO2: Describe core values that vary across culture and influence behaviors
Cultural values are classified into three categories: other, environment, and self. Other-
oriented values reflect a society’s view of the appropriate relationships between individuals
and groups within that society. Relevant values of this nature include individual/collective,
youth/age, extended/limited family, masculine/feminine, competitive/cooperative, and
LO3: Understand cross-cultural variations in nonverbal communications
Nonverbal communication systems are the arbitrary meanings a culture assigns actions,
events, and things other than words. Major examples of nonverbal communication variables
LO4: Summarize key aspects of the global youth culture
There is evidence that urban youth around the world share at least some aspects of a common
LO5: Understand the role of global demographics
Demographics describe a population in terms of its size, structure, and distribution.
by them) as well as consumption patterns.
LO6: List the key dimensions in deciding to enter a foreign market
Seven questions are relevant for developing a cross-cultural marketing strategy: (1) Is the
geographic area homogeneous or heterogeneous with respect to culture? (2) What needs can
LECTURE TIPS AND AIDS
1) Culture is a difficult concept for students to fully understand though they enjoy reading about it. It
2) Students from other cultures should be encouraged to describe the differences between their home
cultures and the one they are in now. Domestic students who have lived in another culture should
do likewise.
4) Student Handout 1: TRANSLATION PROBLEMS IN INTERNATIONAL MARKETING.
5) Student Handout 2: FEDEX CUSTOMIZES FOR THE LATIN AMERICAN MARKET.
7) Student Handout 4: BOLLYWOOD GOES GLOBAL
Student Handout 1: TRANSLATION PROBLEMS IN INTERNATIONAL
MARKETING
Chevrolet’s Nova is an inappropriate brand name in Spanish-speaking countries
where “no va” means “it doesn’t go.”
American Motors “Matador” translated as “killer” in Puerto Rico – a country
with a high traffic fatality rate.
Johnson Wax introduced “Pledge” in the Netherlands as “Pliz.” Pliz is
pronounced very much like “piss” in Dutch. Since most Dutch also speak
English, this caused serious problems.
The Dairy Association’s “Got Milk?” heading was translated as “Are you
lactating?” in Spanish.
Student Handout 2: FEDEX CUSTOMIZES FOR THE LATIN AMERICAN MARKET
The following describes how FedEx used a customized strategy to successfully
target the Latin American market:
In the late 1990’s, FedEx was not nearly as well known in Latin America
and the Caribbean as it was in other parts of the world. Therefore, it
The 30-second commercial showed a young equipment manager for a
soccer team, the dominant sport in the region, worried about the delivery
of five boxes of uniforms he had shipped to Madrid for a major match. An
older man assures him that all will be fine as long as he had shipped them
the load off your shoulders.”
Two versions of the last scene were shot, the nude version and a version
with the men in their underwear. The underwear version was run in
Mexico due to local restrictions on nudity in prime time. The theme
Student Handout 3: CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN HOLIDAY TRADITIONS
Various holiday traditions get translated differently from country to country.
Companies must understand cultural differences related to the celebration of
such holidays when marketing across country.
For example, Halloween originated in Ireland, Britain, and northwest France.
Over time, its celebration became limited to the United States, Canada, and
Ireland. Now, however, it has gone global:
• In Paris, shops decorate their windows with goblins, spider webs, and
skeletons; pumpkins are on sale at open-air markets; bakeries produce
decorated Halloween cakes; McDonald’s gives out masks with kids’
meals; and some children go trick-or–treating.
When such holidays do not replace local traditions and are adapted to the local
culture, they can enrich the lives of the populations that adopt them. However,
Student Handout 4: BOLLYWOOD GOES GLOBAL
Bollywood. India’s Hollywood. India is the leading movie producer and consumer in the
world (the United States is a distant second). No wonder then that Indian culture is hot stuff,
especially among global teens. Consider the following:
With riffs off India’s cultural cachet showing up everywhere—from Madonna’s use of
mendhi, the traditional Indian henna art, to bhangra rhythms from northern India
Marketers have not been shy about tapping this global hip status to market to teens in the
United States, Asia, and Europe. A few examples include:
• In the United States, Absolut vodka has a 12-minute online “Bollywood ad” called
Absolut Mulit.
Not everything coming out of Bollywood is good, however. A World Health Organization
(WHO) study finds that over three-quarters of films coming out of Bollywood over the past
10 years contain smoking of some sort. In a country that accounts for one in three smoking-
related deaths, WHO appears to have valid concerns.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) What are some of the ethical issues involved in cross-cultural marketing?
Obvious issues include exporting potential harmful products such cigarettes as well as products or
2) What is meant by the term culture?
Culture is that complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any
3) What does the statement “Culture sets boundaries on behaviors” mean?
Normally, the boundaries of behavior are outlined by the culture, and even some of these
boundaries for certain kinds of behavior are vague. On the other hand, very important behaviors,
4) What is a norm? From what are norms derived?
Norms are rules that specify or prohibit certain behaviors in specific situations and are based on or
derived from cultural values.
6) What is a sanction?
Sanctions are penalties ranging from mild social disapproval to banishment from the group and are
imposed on those who violate cultural norms.
7) Cultural values can be classified as affecting one of three types of relationships—other,
environment, or self. Describe each of these, and differentiate each one from the others.
8) How does the first of the following paired orientations differ from the second?
a. Individual/collective: Individual emphasizes individual initiative and activity, while
collective appreciates group cooperation and conformity.
c. Tradition/change: Tradition values no or little change, while a change orientation sees
change or progress as good.
d. Limited/extended family: Limited defines a family more tightly in terms of immediate
relatives and imposes fewer obligations to respond to the needs of other family members
than does an extended family orientation.
g. Hard work/leisure: Is work valued for itself, independent of external rewards (hard work),
or is work merely a “means to an end” (leisure)?
j. Competitive/cooperative: Is the path to success found by outdoing other individuals or
groups, or is success to be achieved by forming alliances with other individuals and groups?
k. Youth/age: Are prestige, rank, and important social roles assigned to younger (youth) or
older (age) members of society?
n. Postponed gratification/immediate gratification: Is one encouraged to “save for a rainy day”
(postponed), or should you “live for today” (immediate)?
o. Sensual gratification/abstinence: Is it acceptable to pamper oneself, to satisfy one’s desires
for food, drink, or sex beyond the minimum requirement (sensual) or not (abstinence)?
p. Religious/Secular: To what extent are daily activities determined by religious doctrine?
9) What is meant by nonverbal communications? Why is this a difficult area to adjust to?
10) What is meant by each of the following as a form of nonverbal communication?
a. Time: The culture’s overall orientation to time and the way in which the meaning of time
varies.
d. Relationships: The degree of rights and obligations imposed by relationships and
friendships.
g. Etiquette: Generally accepted ways of behaving in defined social situations.
11) What is guanxi?
Guanxi is literally translated as personal connections/relationships on which an individual can
draw to secure resources or advantages when doing business as well as in the course of social life.
12) What is the difference between instrumental and terminal materialism?
13) What are the differences between a monochronic time perspective and a polychronic time
perspective?
14) What forces seem to be creating a global teenage culture?
The emergence of worldwide mass media is the strongest influence. Entertainers and sports heroes
as superstars and the universal appeal of a variety of sports are also important.
15) What are demographics? Why are they important to international marketers?
Demographics describe a population in terms of its size, structure, and distribution. Demographics
16) What is purchasing power parity?
It is a measure of the ability of consumers in different countries with various income levels to
purchase a set of goods. Basically, it equates the income level in a country to the income in
17) What is glocalization? What factors affect the need to adapt to local considerations?
Glocalization is generally meant to refer to global localization. This generally pertains to
the notion that global brands must adapt to local market considerations. And while there is
18) What are the seven key considerations in deciding whether or not to enter a given international
market?
a. Is the geographic area homogeneous or heterogeneous with respect to culture?
d. What values or patterns of values are relevant to the purchase and use of the product?
e. What are the distribution, political and legal structure of this product?
Discussion Questions
19) Why should we study foreign cultures if we do not plan to engage in international or export
marketing?
To better understand our own culture and the kinds of impacts it has on our consumers. In
differences.
20) Is a country’s culture more likely to be reflected in its art museums or its television commercials?
Why?
Probably in its television commercials. They are more likely to show how people actually think,
21) Are the cultures of the world becoming more similar or more distinct?
There is no answer to this one, but it is a good vehicle to bring out questions about standardization
of marketing strategies. Some students will argue that increased travel and communication, higher
extent many students imagine.
22) Why do values differ across cultures?
Different social histories, physical environments, and religious influences create different values.
their cultures values.
23) The text lists 18 cultural values (in three categories) of relevance to marketing practice. Describe
and place into one of the three categories two additional cultural values that have some relevance
to marketing practice.
Simplicity/Complexity: Are simple or complex stimuli, situations, and lifestyles preferred?
Environment.
Health: Are individuals deeply concerned with their short– and long-run health? Self.
24) Select two cultural values from each of the three categories. Describe the boundaries (norms)
relevant to that value in your society and the sanctions for violating those norms.
It is probably easiest to ask students to do this first for the masculine/feminine value, and then let
them volunteer other values that interest them. The masculine/feminine value is well known to
25) What are the most relevant cultural values affecting the consumption of each of the following?
Describe how and why these values are particularly important.
a) Internet
b) Video
games/consoles
c) Milk
d) Fast food
e) Luxury cars
f) Cell Phones
This question is a good way to cover the concept of values and their role in product
26) What variations between the United States and other societies, other than cultural variations,
may affect the relative level of usage of the following?
a) Internet
b) Video
games/consoles
c) Milk
d) Fast food
e) Luxury cars
f) Cell phones
27. Why is materialism higher in Korea than in the United States, where given its
collectivist culture one might expect materialism to be lower?
This requires students to see that certain aspects of materialism can reinforce collectivist
values. In this case, Korea scores higher on the success dimension which can be very
28) What values underlie the differences between Fiji Island and U.S. children in terms of the
strategies they use to influence their parents’ decisions? What marketing implications
emerge?
29) What are the marketing implications of the differences in the masculine/feminine orientation
across countries?
Looking at the data on participating in sports and exercise indicates that Mexico, France, and
30) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 2–1.
a) Core Values that can be discussed include both “other–oriented” and “self–oriented”
values. For example with “other–oriented,” Coca–Cola’s global message may be better
received in cultures that are more collectivist and uniform. With “self–oriented,” Cola–
Cola appeals to different tastes (sensual gratification) by tailoring its products locally.
Also, the company’s Ramadan campaign appealed to Turkey’s religious values.
b) Seven Global Considerations
ii) Needs: Coca-Cola does offer flagship brands like Coca-Cola Classic and Sprite in
most markets, but customizes its products to meet the tastes and preferences within
each culture. Innovations are created, such as Maaza Milkshakes in India, to adapt to
the local culture’s tastes.
v) Infrastructure: Coca-Cola uses local bottling and distribution operations in countries
where the product is sold. In addition, local ingredients are used.
vi) Communication: Coca-Cola uses a global message, such as “Taste the Feeling” but
then tailors the message locally. During the World Cup, the company had a consistent
brand message but adapted each country’s webpage with a local message
incorporating local celebrities and culture.
ingredients and local infrastructure.
c) Discussion by students to share their experiences with purchasing Coca-Cola and other
beverages in different countries: Questions to be asked to prompt the discussion:
i) Have they tried a local variant of Coca-Cola in a foreign country?
31) Why do nonverbal communication systems vary across cultures?
Different social histories, physical environments, and religious influences over time create
32) Which, if any, nonverbal communication factors might be relevant in the marketing of the
following?
a) Watches
b) Jewelry
c) Facial tissue
d) Laundry detergent
e) Lip balm
f) Women’s clothing
Students should discuss each of the nonverbal communication factors (time, space, relationships,
33) What are the implications of guanxi for a Western firm entering the Chinese market?
The most important issue is developing a deep understanding that these complex relationships
34) To what extent do you think youth are truly becoming a single, global culture?
While there is no absolutely correct answer, the author’s experience of living in a variety of
35) Will today’s youth still be a “global culture” when they are 40? Why or why not?
This is a very good way to explore what a culture truly is and how it develops and changes. It may
also cause some to reconsider their answer to question 34. If teenagers do indeed have a common
culture including values, this is not likely to change radically as they enter adulthood.
36) How do demographics affect a culture’s values? How do a culture’s values affect its
demographics?
Values have a stronger, more direct impact on demographics than vice versa. However, values are
formed and evolve based on the history and environment of a culture. Demographics are part of
37) What causes the differences between purchasing power parity and income as shown in the text?
Local cost structures, governmental provided health care, taxes, and other cost of living factors
numbers and purchasing power.
38) The text provides a seven-step procedure for analyzing a foreign market. Using this procedure,
analyze your country as a market for:
a) Laptop computers from Japan
b) Automobiles from Korea
c) Sunglasses from Italy
d) Wine from Chile
This question can provide an excellent method for presenting the material on cross-cultural
39) What are the major ethical issues in introducing prepared foods such as fast foods to developing
countries?
The consumption of this product might divert resources from other, more important, food
40) Should U.S. tobacco firms be allowed to market cigarettes in developing countries? Why or why
not?
The answer depends more on one’s value system than on any set of facts. It is critically important
country.
41) How can developing countries keep their cultures from being overly Westernized or
Americanized?
There is no answer to this question. Legal restrictions can have a modest impact. However,