CHAPTER 15
INFORMATION SEARCH
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1: Discuss internal and external information search and their role in different decision types
LO2: Summarize the types of information consumers search for
LO3: Describe the categories of decision alternatives relating to the evoked set
SUMMARY
LO1: Discuss internal and external information search and their role in different decision types
Following problem recognition, consumers typically engage in some form and amount of search.
Internal search is accessing relevant information from long-term memory to be used to determine if a
LO2: Summarize the types of information consumers search for
LO3: Describe the categories of decision alternatives relating to the evoked set
From the set of all possible alternatives that could solve a consumer problem, there are the following
categories of decision alternatives. There are alternatives that consumers are aware of (awareness set),
alternatives that consumers are aware of and view in a neutral manner (inert set), alternatives that
consumers are aware of and view negatively (inept set), and alternatives that consumers are aware of
LO4: Discuss available information sources and the role of Internet and mobile search
Consumer internal information (information stored in memory) may have been actively acquired in
previous searches and personal experiences, or it may have been passively acquired through low–
involvement learning. In addition to their own memory, consumers can seek information from four
LO5: Discuss the major cost-benefit factors driving the amount of external search
Explicit external information search after problem recognition is often limited. It is often suggested
that consumers generally should engage in relatively extensive external search prior to purchasing an
item in order to reap higher benefits of the purchase such as higher brand quality or lower price.
LO6: Summarize the marketing strategies based on information search patterns
Sound marketing strategy takes into account the nature of information search engaged in by the target
market. The level of search and the brand’s position in or out of the evoked set are two key
dimensions. Based on these two dimensions, six potential information strategies are suggested: (1)
maintenance, (2) disrupt, (3) capture, (4) intercept, (5) preference, and (6) acceptance.
LECTURE TIPS AND AIDS
1) Figure 15-1 provides a useful framework for a discussion of why and how consumers go through
information search. The discussion might include how this process would work for a routine
purchase such as gasoline, an important purchase such as a mountain bike or new skis and an
emotional purchase such as a new outfit for a special occasion.
3) Have each student describe the sources and types of information he/she used in a recent major and
a recent minor purchase. Have them classify it in terms of Figure 15-4. Ask the students to explain
why they used the information and information sources they did use, and why they did not use
other sources and types. Online sources will surely be a part of this discussion.
5) Figure 15-5 is a good way to discuss how people search online (the search terms used) and the
strategic implications for online marketers who rely on search engines to direct traffic their way.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) When does information search occur? What is the difference between internal and external
information search?
Information search occurs in response to a recognized problem that is deemed important enough to
resolve. Because an internal information search is much easier, less time-consuming, and less
2) What kind of information is sought in an external search for information?
An external search for information can include: (a) the appropriate evaluative criteria for the
solution of the problem, (b) the existence of various alternative solutions, and (c) the performance
of each alternative solution on each evaluative criterion.
3) What are evaluative criteria and how do they relate to information search?
4) How does a consumer’s awareness set influence information search?
An awareness set includes those alternative solutions (alternative brands) that the consumer is
5) What roles do the evoked set, inert set, and inept set play in a consumer’s information search?
Those brands that a consumer is aware of (i.e., in his or her awareness set) can be classified as
belonging to either an evoked, inert, or inept set. Consumers’ evoked sets (or consideration sets)
include brands that they would readily consume. Brands in their inert sets are brands they are
with the product category and brand, and their unique needs and situation.
6) What are the primary sources of information available to consumers?
The primary sources of information available to consumers are: (1) memory of previously
acquired information, (2) personal sources such as friends and family; (3) independent sources
such as consumer groups, government agencies, and nonpartisan organizations; (4) marketing
7) What is behavioral targeting?
Behavioral targeting involves tracking consumer click patterns on a website and using that
information to make decisions regarding banner ad placement.
8) What is search engine optimization?
Search engine optimization (SEO) involves techniques designed to ensure that a company’s web
9) What is local mobile search?
Local mobile search is defined as searches for information from a mobile device
pertaining to the current (or future planned) geographic location of a consumer.
10) How do nonsearchers, limited information searchers, and extended information searchers differ in
their search for information?
Nonsearchers tend to use little or no information prior to search, limited information searchers are
more comprehensive in their search and evaluation, and extended information searchers exhibit a
11) What factors might influence the search effort of consumers who are essentially one-stop
shoppers? How do these factors differ in terms of how they influence limited information
searchers and extended information searchers?
In terms of perceived benefits, one-stop shoppers may not perceive much price or quality
difference between alternative brands. In addition, they may attribute a higher cost to the search
12) What factors have to be considered in the total cost of the information search? How might these
factors be different for different consumers?
The total cost of a search includes direct costs such as transportation, parking, and baby-sitting,
and indirect costs such as time loss, fatigue, and psychological stress.
Individuals have different perceptions of the direct and indirect costs of search, differing values for
time, and differing tolerances for the potential frustrations of information search.
13) Explain how different market characteristics affect information search.
a. Price range: The higher the price difference between brands, the greater the financial
benefit of a search effort.
c. Store concentration: The density of retail trade outlets affects search such that a lower
density increases the cost of visiting a number of retail outlets and, hence, reduces the level
of prepurchase information search. High store density lowers this cost and thus increases
the likelihood of a search effort.
14) How do different consumer characteristics influence a consumer’s information search effort?
a. Learning and experience: A satisfying experience and repeat purchase of a particular brand
of product has the effect of reducing prepurchase information search.
d. Social status: Using occupation, education, and income as measures of status, information
search has been found to be greater for those higher in status.
e. Product involvement: Consumers who are highly involved with a product category
generally seek information relevant to the product category on an ongoing basis.
15) How do product characteristics influence a consumer’s information search effort?
a. Price: The higher the price of the object, the greater the level of search.
16) How do situational characteristics influence a consumer’s information search effort?
a. Time availability: The more time available for the purchase, the greater the search.
d. Social surroundings: May increase or decrease search depending on the nature of the social
situation.
17) Describe the information search characteristics that should lead to each of the following strategies:
a) Maintenance: Habitual decision (no search), brand in evoked set.
d) Intercept: Limited decision (limited search), brand not in evoked set.
e) Preference: Extended decision (extensive search), brand in evoked set.
18) Describe each of the strategies listed in Question 17.
Maintenance Strategy
If the brand is purchased habitually by the target market, the marketer’s strategy is to maintain that
behavior. This requires consistent attention to product quality, distribution (avoiding out–of-stock
situations), and a reinforcement advertising strategy. In addition, the marketer must defend against
Disrupt Strategy
If the brand is not part of the evoked set and the target market engages in nominal decision
making, the marketer’s first task is to disrupt the existing decision pattern. This is a difficult task
since the consumer does not seek external information or even consider alternative brands before a
purchase. Low-involvement learning over time could generate a positive product position for our
brand, but this alone would be unlikely to shift behavior.
Capture Strategy
Limited decision making generally involves a few brands that are evaluated on only a few criteria,
such as price or availability. Much of the information search occurs at the point–of-purchase or in
readily available media prior to purchase. If the brand is one given this type of consideration by
the target market, the marketer’s objective is to capture as large a share of the purchases as
practical.
Intercept Strategy
If the target market engages in limited decision making and the brand is not part of the evoked set,
the objective will be to intercept the consumer during the search for information on the brands in
the evoked set or during general search for related information. Again, the emphasis will be on
local media with cooperative advertising and at the point of purchase with displays, shelf space,
Preference Strategy
Extended decision making with the brand in the evoked set requires a preference strategy. Because
extended decision making generally involves several brands, many attributes, and a number of
information sources, a simple capture strategy may not be adequate. Instead, the marketer needs to
Acceptance Strategy
Acceptance strategy is similar to preference strategy. However, it is complicated by the fact that
the target market is not seeking information about the brand. Therefore, in addition to the activities
involved in the preference strategy described above, the marketer must attract the consumers’
attention or otherwise motivate them to learn about the brand. This can be difficult, but various
automakers over the years have gone as far as to pay customers to test drive their cars (Chrysler)
or loan their cars to opinion leaders (Ford) in an effort to move their brand into consumer
consideration sets by encouraging trial and or positive WOM.
Discussion Questions
19) Pick a product/brand that you believe would require each strategy in Table 15-2 (six products in
total). Justify your selection. Develop a specific marketing strategy for each (six strategies in
total).
List the six strategies (maintenance, disrupt, capture, intercept, preference, acceptance) on the
board and have students discuss the types of products and brands for which each is appropriate.
20) Which product classes are most likely to have evoked sets of one? Relate this to the type
of decision process.
21) Use a shopping service such as NexTag to help you choose a brand of coffeemaker. In what way
does it help you form your evoked or consideration set? Is information overload a problem?
Explain.
Many students will be quite familiar with using shopping service sites. This will provide an
opportunity for them to analyze the consumer behavior aspect of using these sites. Using the
shopping service is likely to help consumers to become more aware of the coffeemakers on the
22) Do you have a local mobile search app? If so, what is your evaluation of it? If no, why
not?
There will be a varying amount of use of these apps among students, although younger consumers
23) What information sources do you think students on your campus use when acquiring the items
listed below? Consider the various sources listed in Figure 15-4 in developing your answer. Do
you think there will be individual differences? Why?
a) Movies
b) Restaurants
c) Apartment
d) Computer
PRODUCT
SOURCE
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
PERSONAL
Friends
Roommates
Family
Classmates
Internet (usergroups, blogs,
social network)
INDEPENDENT SEARCH
Store Visits
Trial Purchase
Rent
government agency)
Sales Personnel
Internet (corporate website)
24) What factors contribute to the size of the awareness set, evoked set, inert set, and inept set?
The size of awareness, evoked, inert, and inept sets are a function of: (1) the number of
25) Discuss factors that may contribute to external information search and factors that act to reduce
external search for information before purchase of the following:
a) Car insurance
b) International travel
c) Exercise club
26) Is it ever in the best interest of a marketer to encourage potential customers to carry out an
extended prepurchase search? Why or why not?
Discussion of this question must focus on the relative position of the marketer. If in a position of
strength, where the marketer’s brand is known, the marketer may want to limit and direct search to
27) What implications for marketing strategy does Figure 15-2 suggest?
Figure 15-2 suggests the critical importance of obtaining not only brand awareness but also brand
acceptance (being in the evoked set). Marketing strategy, and measures of marketing and
28) What implications for online marketing strategy does Figure 15–5 suggest?
In all four categories, information search is based primarily on generic keyword searches. In terms
of search engine optimization, Figure 15-5 suggests the importance of generic terms in linking to a
29) What role, if any, should the government play in ensuring that consumers have easy access to
relevant product information? How should it accomplish this?
The steps that the government has already taken to ensure that consumers have relevant product
30) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 15-1.
Q1 – Generic information is static and doesn’t change from consumer to consumer. The internet
allows for real-time personalization either via algorithms that predict customer characteristics and
underlying needs or via directed action on the part of the customer via an interactive tool. Generic
information is much less valuable to customers because it is much less applicable to their specific
needs and wants and situations.
31) Describe a recent purchase in which you engaged in extensive search and one in which you did
little prepurchase search. What factors caused the difference?
In general, the differences tend to include: importance of purchase, amount of money involved,
when the item was needed to be used, experience in buying this kind of product, perceived risk in
buying the product, number of alternatives considered, and number of product features sought.
32) What is your awareness set, evoked set, inert set, and inept set for the following? In what ways, if
any, do you think your sets will differ from the average member of your class? Why?
a) Automobiles
b) Energy drinks
c) Car insurance providers
d) Jewelry stores
e) Book stores