Traditional Leadership Theories
Leadership theory can be studied from at least five perspectives: the trait approach, the
behavioral approach, contingency (situational) approaches, the role approach, and
emerging theories.1 The first four represent traditional theories that we discuss in this
section.
Trait Approach The trait approach involves discovering how to be a leader by
examining the characteristics and methods of recognized leaders. Pioneering studies were
performed several years ago;2 however, these have been discredited to some extent by
academicians. A more recent empirical study of 200 European CEOs and over 1000 key
subordinates identified five key leadership styles that support TQ.3 These styles and their
key traits, in decreasing order of impact on success factors, are
1. Team builder. Tolerant, motivational, inspirational, supportive.
2. Captain. Respectful, trusting, reliable, fair.
3. Strategist. Trustworthy.
4. Creative. Innovative, visionary, courageous, inspirational, confident.
5. Impulsive. Obsessed with new ideas, curious, energetic, participative.
The leadership profile of any individual is a composite of multiple styles; however,
the predominance of some styles over others will influence the success of that individual.
Behavioral Approach The behavioral approach attempts to determine the types of
leadership behaviors that lead to successful task performance and employee satisfaction.
Researchers at Ohio State University performed an extensive series of leadership studies
in developing this theory.4 Work done Independently at the University of Michigan on
leader behavior came to similar conclusions. Both groups of researchers showed that
effective leadership depends on a proper blending of an employee relationship-centered
2. managing a change
3. focusing on the customer
4. dealing with individuals
5. supporting teams and groups
6. sharing information
7. solving problems, making decisions
8. managing business processes
9. managing projects
10. displaying technical skills
11. managing time and resources
12. taking responsibility
13. taking initiative beyond job requirements
14. handling emotions
15. displaying professional ethics
16. showing compassion
17. making credible presentations
The 17 leadership competencies identified in the Zenger-Miller study suggest that
today’s leaders are embodying many TQ principles in their routine leadership activities.
Table 5.2 compares traditional management practice with true quality leadership.
Traditional management all too often relies on mechanistic planning and organizing,
reacting to events, pushing products, and controlling people.
Other well-known behavioral leadership models include Douglas McGregor’s Theory
X-Theory Y model6 and the Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid model.7 McGregor explicitly
defined contrasting assumptions that managers hold about workers and how those
obtain high productivity. McGregor’s Theory Y manager assumes that work is a natural
activity, and people who are led well can be expected to be self-motivated to perform
their best work if given the opportunity. Much of Deming’s philosophy follows the
principles in Theory Y and agrees with Blake and Mouton that balanced concern for
people and production is essential for organizational effectiveness. From the standpoint
of the Baldrige criteria (discussed later in this chapter), it is important for senior leaders
who adopt a TQ philosophy to set, communicate, and deploy organizational values,
performance expectations, and to balance value for customers and stakeholders. Attention
to the Theory X-Y and Managerial Grid values can help accomplish this.
Contingency (Situational) Approach The contingency or situational approach holds
that there is no universal approach to leadership; rather, effective leadership behavior
depends on situational factors that may change over time. Current leadership theory is
model bears some resemblance to the Vroom-Jago model. House’s model states that the
appropriate path to high performance and high job satisfaction is dependent on employee
needs and abilities, the degree of structure of tasks to be performed, and the leadership
style that is selected by the leader. Effective leaders choose one of four styles
(achievement-oriented, directive, participative, or supportive) that matches the situational
contingencies and helps team members along the path to their highest-value goals. The
Hershey and Blanchard model relates the requirement for directive or supportive
behavior of the leader to team members’ readiness (relative maturity) to take
responsibility and participate in decision making. Situational leadership is based on a
Role Approach The role approach suggests that leaders perform certain roles in order
to be effective. The role approach is similar to the trait and behavioral approaches, but
also takes into account situational factors. Thus, according to the theory, leaders at upper
levels of the organization, or in large firms, may frequently be called upon to play the
role of figurehead or liaison person between the firm and its outside environment. At a
lower level, where spans of control extend widely, motivational, coordinative, or
disturbance handling roles may be needed for effective leadership. Henry Mintzberg’s
1 Judith R. Gordon, A Diagnostic Approach to Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn
and Bacon, 1991), 341–370.
2 R. M. Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1974).
3 J.J. Dahlgaard, A. Norgaard, and S. Jakobsen, “Styles of Success,” European Quality, November–
December 1997, 36–39; and J.J. Dahlgaard, A. Norgaard, and S. Jakobsen, “Profile of Success,”
European Quality, January–February 1998, 30–33. Cited in Edgeman et al. (see note 2).
4 R. M. Stogdill, see note 15; R. House and M. Baetz, “Leadership: Some Generalizations and New
Research Directions,” in B. M. Staw (ed.) Research in Organizational Behavior (Greenwich, CT:
JAI Press, 1979), 359.
5 “Customer Focus: One of Seventeen Core Leadership Competencies” excerpted from “An Essay
from Zenger–Miller”Updating the Meaning of Leadership: A Grass–Roots Model for the
Workplace,” (no other citation given), The Quality Observer, January 1997, 28–29.
6 Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960).
7 R. R. Blake and J. S. Mouton, The Managerial Grid (Houston: Gulf Publishing, 1965).
8Op cit. Note 20
9 Victor H. Vroom and Phillip W. Yetton, Leadership and Decision Making (Pittsburgh, PA:
University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973).
10 V. H. Vroom and A. G. Jago, The New Leadership, (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice–Hall, 1988).