Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
Lecture Notes
Chapter 6: Leadership
Learning Objectives
6.1: Define leadership and explain the difference between being a manager and being a
leader.
6.2: Demonstrate the role of leaders in the motivation process using path–goal theory
(PGT).
6.3: Illustrate the leader–member exchange (LMX) model with an example.
Chapter Summary
Chapter summary here.
Annotated Chapter Outline
I. Have Leaders Lost Their Followers’ Trust?
A. Richard Edelman’s 2019 global survey on which people and institutions we trust
and how much we trust them:
i. See Figure 6.1 Meeting Employee Expectations Builds Trust.
ii. Overall, 2019 saw a 14-point decline in global trust.
II. What is Leadership?
A. Leadership: According to Yukl, the process of influencing others to understand
and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of
facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
i. Confusion in the literature between leadership and other terms such as
management.
B. Differentiating Management and Leadership
i. Managers versus leaders, according to Warren Bennis:
a. Administration versus innovation
b. A copy versus an original
c. Maintaining versus developing
C. Managerial Leadership
i. Both managers and leaders are needed for optimal organizational
performance.
a. To some extent, the two roles overlap.
D. The Trait Approach
i. Trait approach: A theory of leadership that believes that leaders are born
with the talent and abilities for leadership
ii. Were largely dismissed by OB researchers when they did not identify
reliable differences between leaders and followers.
a. Caused a shift towards behavioral approaches
iii. Interest in trait approach experienced a resurgence when a review found
that the following traits do matter for leadership:
a. Drive
b. Leadership motivation
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
iv. Recent research suggests extraversion has an effect on leadership
emergence and effectiveness.
v. Personality traits can be used to screen individuals for hiring and
professional development.
E. Limitations of the Trait Approach
a. This means anyone can learn the behaviors of an effective leader.
F. Leader Behaviors
i. A study asked followers to describe what their leaders did and created a list
of over 1,000 leader behaviors. Statistical analyses were able to reduce this
down to two categories:
a. Initiating structure: Defining tasks for employees and focusing on
goals
b. Consideration: The degree to which the leader shows trust, respect,
and sensitivity to employees’ feelings
c. Leader effectiveness
iii. Initiating structure has a somewhat stronger relation to:
a. Leader job performance
b. Group performance
iv. Recently expanded to include six behaviors.
v. Three task-oriented behaviors:
a. Enhancing understanding
b. Strengthening motivation
c. Facilitating implementation
vi. Three relation-oriented behaviors:
vii. Which leader behavior is most effective?
a. Behavioral flexibility
III. Path–Goal Theory
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
A. Path–goal theory (PGT): The role of leaders is to motivate followers to
accomplish goals by establishing the paths to those goals.
i. A situational theory of leadership
B. Motivational Leadership Behaviors
i. Path–goal theory specifies four leadership behaviors that motivate
employees:
a. Directive leadership: Giving followers specific instructions about
their tasks, providing deadlines, setting standards for performance,
and explaining rules
b. Supportive leadership: Showing consideration, being friendly and
approachable, and paying attention to the well-being of followers
C. Adapting to the Situation
i. See Figure 6.4 The Path–Goal Theory.
ii. The leader learns of obstacles the follower faces and helps by removing
them.
a. For example, if an employee is waiting on a report from another
department, the leader can help by calling the department and
requesting that the report be expedited.
iii. Another consideration: follower ability.
D. Leader–Member Exchange
i. Leader–member exchange (LMX): The quality of the working
relationship developed with each follower, characterized by more
delegation of authority to those with high-quality LMX
a. In-group members: Members who take on extra work and go
above and beyond their job specifications
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
b. Out-group members: Members who perform just to the
specifications in their job descriptions
c. Poor performers are best classified as a third category, one who is
E. Inclusive Leadership
i. Inclusive leadership: Leaders should help all team members feel part of
the group (belongingness) while retaining their sense of individuality
(uniqueness) so they contribute to the team atmosphere.
a. Benefits diverse teams through attention to the uniqueness of
women and minorities while valuing the attributes, perspectives,
and contributions of each member
ii. Leveraging team member uniqueness increases performance.
iii. Facilitating belongingness includes:
a. Valuing each member
b. Ensuring fairness
c. Sharing decisions with followers
F. Leader–Member Exchange Development
i. Three-step process:
G. Followership
i. Followership: The behaviors a person engages in while interacting with
leaders to meet organizational objectives
a. May have evolved as a way to address coordination problems in
social groups, such as the complexities of hunting and gathering
b. Some did not have the physical or psychological strength to be
leaders and thus tended to become followers.
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
iv. Benefits of coproduction:
a. More follower support
b. More motivation
c. More contributions from followers (followers have a voice in
decisions)
d. Contrasts with “passive orientation,” or the belief that followers
should defer to and follow directions from the leader
H. Attributions and Leader–Member Relationships
i. Attribution: A person’s attempt to assign a cause to a behavior or event
they observe
ii. Attribution theory: Proposes that the attributions people make about
events and behavior can be either internal or external
a. Internal attribution: When people infer that an event or a person’s
behavior is because of character traits or abilities
iii. In organizations, attributions are particularly significant when events are:
iv. Leaders can reach more accurate conclusions by considering the
following factors:
a. Consensus information: Information about how other people would
behave if they were in the same situation. High consensus means
many others would behave the same way, while low consensus
suggests most others would behave differently.
I. The Mentor Connection
i. Mentoring: An intense developmental relationship whereby advice,
counseling, and developmental opportunities are provided to a protégé by a
mentor, which, in turn, shapes the protégé’s career experiences
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
ii. A mentor relationship with a boss often results in:
a. Higher performance
b. Promotions
c. Salary increases
d. In some cases, a promoted boss may bring a mentee or other trusted
in-group member with them.
IV. The Importance of Trust
A. Trust is the willingness to be vulnerable.
i. Related to important outcomes such as risk-taking and job performance
ii. Fundamental to the development of effective working relationships with
bosses and others
B. A three-part view of trust involves calculus-based, knowledge-based, and
identification-based trust.
C. Calculus-Based Trust
i. Calculus-based trust (CBT): A form of trust based upon keeping records
of what another person does for you and what you do for them
a. An “arm’s length” form of trust which minimizes vulnerability for
each party
b. Ex: a leader telling a follower to perform a task because they are
paid to do the items in their job description, which may imply a
firing if they fail to perform the task
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
iii. Highly efficient for the leader: followers take care of details while the
leader focuses on the strategic vision or negotiating group resources
iv. Development of trust is “tactical climbing:”
a. Increasing levels of risk and vulnerability over time
b. Cues perceived early in employment predict the emergence of trust.
F. Repairing Broken Trust
i. Three questions to ask after a trustee has violated a trustor’s trust:
a. Is the trustee innocent or guilty?
b. If guilty, should this be attributed to the situation or person?
c. If attributed to the person, is the shortcoming fixable or an enduring
characteristic?
ii. If a trustee is innocent, they should:
d. Remaining reticent is risky; people tend to assume the worst.
iii. If a trustee is guilty, an apology may be effective. Apologies should:
a. Be remorseful and repentant
b. Mention any extenuating factors that played a role
c. Be seen as adequate to be effective
iv. Excuses may be effective depending on the person and the relationship.
b. Success depends on other contingencies described below.
v. If the transgression stems from an honest mistake or ignorance, people are
more likely to give the benefit of the doubt and trust again.
vi. If the act is seen as demonstrating a lack of integrity, trust is difficult or
impossible to repair.
V. Full-Range Leadership Development
A. People are more engaged when their leaders behave in certain ways at the highest
end of the full-range model.
B. Transactional Leadership
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
i. Transactional leadership: Behaviors that motivate followers through
rewards and corrective actions
a. The foundation of transformational leadership.
ii. Three behaviors, from least effective to most effective:
a. Nonleadership/laissez-faire leadership: The “near-avoidance of
leadership,”
i
the least active and least effective of all the leadership
styles in the full-range model
C. Transformational Leadership
i. Transformational leadership: Behaviors that mobilize extra effort from
followers through emphasis on change through articulating a new vision for
the organization
a. Most related to positive attitudes, commitment, and follower
performance.
ii. Four behaviors, known as the Four I’s:
a. Idealized influence: Being admired and respected by followers is the
core of this leadership component. These leaders are seen as
change agents in the organization.
iii. Transformational leaders increase intrinsic motivation by aligning
followers’ tasks with their own interests and what they value most.
VI. Moral Approaches
A. Ethical Leadership
i. Ethical leadership: A leadership style focused on ethical decision-making
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
a. Leaders today must be authentic and serve followers, not just their
own goals.
ii. Ethical leadership has four components:
a. Moral sensitivity: recognizing our behavior impacts others
iii. Ethical leadership is positively related to work group-level ethical
behavior and negatively related to relationship conflict among coworkers.
iv. If employees indicated that their leaders are ethical and fair role models
who communicate and reward ethical behavior, there perform more
positive behaviors:
a. Less deviance
v. Ethical leaders have a cascading effect down to lower-level employees and
management.
B. Servant and Authentic Leadership
i. Servant leadership: Basically, the idea that followers are first rather than
leaders.
ii. Seven dimensions of servant leadership:
a. Emotional healing
b. Creating value for the community
iii. Developmental support is characteristic of both servant leadership and
humble leadership.
iv. Humble leadership: Where a leader’s humility allows them to show
followers how to grow as a result of work.
a. Leads followers to believe their own developmental journeys are
legitimate
Instructor Resource
Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2022
a. Authentic leaders are most effective when they develop an effective
vision that relates to the shared interests of their team.
vi. Authentic leadership has four dimensions:
a. Self-awareness: Seeks feedback to improve interaction with others
VII. Leadership Implications: Flexibility Matters
A. Based on leadership research, leaders should follow these steps to adapt to a
situation:
i. Assess your followers’ individual differences in terms of abilities and
motivation
a. Everyone is different and leaders need to adapt to each unique
follower.
ii. Assess the situation.
a. How many possible solutions are there to the problem?
iii. Pay attention to follower behaviors and take corrective actions and apply
rewards as suggested by the full-range model of leadership.
a. Different situations require either transactional or transformational
approaches.
iv. Assess the moral component of every leadership decision you make.