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McKee Chapter 3:
MOTIVATION AND MEANING: WHAT MAKES PEOPLE
WANT TO WORK?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
3.1 Define motivation.
3.2 Understand the characteristics of meaningful work.
3.3 Recognize the links between motivation and psychology.
3.4 Learn why it is important to be able to critique theories of motivation.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
In Chapter 3, we look at what it takes to keep a manager and others enthusiastically engaged in
meaningful work and motivated to produce results. The chapter explores meaning and flow in the
process of motivation. The “Big Five Dimensions of Personality” is defined and its relevance to
motivation is explained. We learn some fundamental truths about motivation: it takes personal
effort, great leadership, and a positive environment to sustain passionate engagement with work.
The chapter discusses the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
The chapter then focuses on describing and illustrating in detail the major theories of work
motivation, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Alderfer’s ERG theory, and Herzberg’s
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Teaching Objective: To provide students with a solid understanding of motivation and what
makes work meaningful for people.
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I. What is Motivation?
A. Motivation – the result of a complex set of psychological influences and external
forces or conditions that cause a person to behave in a certain way while
II. What Makes Work Meaningful?
A. The Flow experience
1. Flow: A state of complete engrossment in a task that matches one’s skills
B. Motivation: It’s Up to You
1. You are responsible for motivating yourself.
2. That said, leaders have a tremendous impact on the degree to which
C. Great Leaders Inspire and Motivate Us
1. Self-awareness is important when you want to motivate others.
2. Hope – a state of mind that includes optimism, an image of a future that is
III. What Is the Link Between Motivation and Psychology?
A. Intrinsic motivation – the desire to engage in activities even in the absence of
external rewards in order to feel a sense of satisfaction, to use or improve one’s
B. Extrinsic motivation – the result of forces or attractions outside of the self, such as
material rewards, social status, or avoiding unpleasant consequences.
C. Locus of control – our perception of the degree to which we have control over
what happens in our lives.
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D. Big Five Dimensions of Personality (Exhibit 3.6)
1. Openness to Experience – open to new ideas, curious
IV. Which Theories of Motivation Are Important to Know?
Theories of Motivation: Timeline
Year Theorist Theory
1953 B. F. Skinner Operant conditioning theory
1954 Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of needs theory
1959 Frederick Herzberg Two-factor theory
1961 David McClelland Three-needs theory
V. What Are Basic and Higher Order Needs Theories of Motivation?
A. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – people are motivated to satisfy first physiological,
then safety and security, then belonging, then esteem, and finally self-actualization
B. ERG theory – people are motivated to satisfy needs related to existence,
relatedness, and growth, and that these needs can all be activated at the same time.
C. Two-Factor theory – states that two distinct sets of factors, called motivators &
hygiene factors, affect job satisfaction, motivation, or job dissatisfaction.
1. Motivators – factors that positively impact motivation, such as the needs for
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VI. Why Are the Three-Needs, Equity, Expectancy, and Goal-Setting Theories Useful?
A. Three-needs theory – focuses on people’s needs for achievement, affiliation, and
power
1. Need for Achievement (nAch) – the desire to engage in challenging and
3. Need for Power (nPow) – the desire to have influence, control, and
responsibility, either directly or through social status.
a. Personalized Power – seeks control through assertive or
B. Measuring Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, Power
1. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – a projective test: Test takers are
asked to look at pictures that show people alone or interacting with others, and
C. Equity Theory and Cognitive Dissonance
1. Equity theory – we are motivated when we feel that our inputs and outcomes at
work are fair and just.
2. Referent – another individual or a group. Can also be oneself in a past or similar
D. Expectancy Theory – motivation is affected by the relationship between effort,
performance, outcomes, and the value of the outcomes
1. Effort – a person’s input, which will be affected by the person’s perception
E. Goal-setting theory – states that people are motivated by the process of identifying
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1. SMART goals – acronym describing goals that are specific, measurable,
VII. What Are Learning Theories?
1. Learning theories – help us understand how people can be motivated to
learn to change their behavior as a result of experience, consequences, and
practice
A. Operant Conditioning Theory – learning and behavior change occur when
behavior is reinforced, and when that behavior is not reinforced or is punished, it
will eventually cease
1. Reinforcement –consequences associated with behavior
a. Positive reinforcement: Addition of a positive consequence following a
B. Social learning theory – people learn new behaviors by observing others, and self-
reinforcement and self-efficacy support learning and behavior change
1. Vicarious learning – people will replicate behavior they observe, Bobo doll
experiment
VIII. How Can We Integrate Theories of Motivation?
A. Find a theory that you can easily embrace and implement, and use it
B. You need to have more than one theory in your toolbox
IX. What Role Does HR Play in Motivation?
A. One of HR’s core responsibilities is to ensure that the workforce is energized,
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2. Group compensation – compensation plan that base an individual’s
compensation on the performance of a group or groups, and/or the organization
as a whole
3. Merit-based compensation – a plan in which compensation is determined by
C. Job characteristics model – framework that states people need certain qualities in
their job to be intrinsically motivated and satisfied with their work
1. Job enrichment – building intrinsic motivators, such as opportunities for
X. What Can We All Do About Motivation?
A. Self-awareness and motivation – understanding feelings and moods is an
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.1:
1. Make a list of all the jobs you have had, paid and unpaid, including your “job” as a student.
What kind of work did you find most meaningful in these jobs, and why?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. If you are convinced that you are doing meaningful work, your
2. Describe a situation in which you had to motivate other people. How did you do it?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. A fundamental truth about motivation: It takes personal commitment,
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Discussion Questions for Objective 3.2:
1. What sort of work do you find meaningful? Be specific.
Suggested Answer:
2. Think about a situation in which you were a leader. What sort of shadow did you cast, and how
effective were you in motivating people? What led to your success, and what could you have done
better?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. As a manager or leader, you can motivate by creating a sense of hope
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.3:
1. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? How can each type of
motivation contribute to a resonant work environment? How can each type of motivation result in
dissonance?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in activities even in the
absence of external rewards in order to feel a sense of satisfaction, to use or improve one’s
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2. How does locus of control affect you in college? Explain by using a specific example to
illustrate.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Since locus of control is defined as the perceived degree of control
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.4:
1. Please review Exhibit 3.8. Which theories of motivation have you heard about? Which seem
valid based on these brief summaries? Why?
Suggested Answer:
2. You are about to study nine theories of motivation. This will take effort and persistence. Take a
few minutes to list a few intrinsic and extrinsic motivators that will help you stay focused as you
read.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Some of the intrinsic motivators may be learning, satisfaction of
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.5:
1. Think about a time in your life when physical or safety needs were important. Were other needs,
such as the need for friendship and love, or for personal growth, important at the time? Why or
why not?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. According to Maslow’s theory of needs, it is possible that friendship
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2. Think about a job or a volunteer role where your hygiene needs were not met. What was the
effect of this on your level of motivation?
Suggested Answer:
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.6:
1. Which needs do you believe affect your motivation most: achievement, affiliation, or power?
Suggested Answer:
2. Set a SMART goal for yourself—one that you can accomplish by the end of this semester.
Discuss how your goal is S-M-A-R-T.
Suggested Answer:
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.7:
1. Consider rewards and punishments or other reinforcements you have experienced at work. What
was the effect on your motivation to learn or change your behavior?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Typically, the type of reward or punishment will determine the degree
2. Do you feel you have self-efficacy? How did it develop or fail to develop as much as you’d
like? Consider your family, school, friends, sports, and other experiences.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Self-efficacy is the degree to which you believe that you are capable
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.8:
1. Explain which theory you believe best explains motivation and why.
Suggested Answer:
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2. How does Google motivate employees?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Google, in addition to innovation, has gained acclaim in another area:
motivation in the workplace. Bikes are placed all around the campus to help “Googlers” get
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.9:
1. Pay is often considered a primary motivator. Is it for you? Why or why not? Use theories
presented in this chapter to support your stance.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Money is indeed a motivator for most people. After all, it fills the
2. Individual, group, and merit-based compensation approaches are intended to motivate workers
and enhance organizational performance. What are some potential unintended consequences of
each approach?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. An unintended consequence of individual compensation is the
Discussion Questions for Objective 3.10:
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1. Think about a relationship with a school or work colleague that you are motivated to improve.
Practice self-awareness by examining your role in this relationship: What are you doing to make it
better? What have you done to create the current problems? What emotions have driven your
behavior?
Suggested Answer:
2. For the same relationship, practice empathy. What do you think is driving the other person’s
behavior? What motivates him or her to act in certain ways? What emotions is he or she
expressing?
Suggested Answer:
END OF CHAPTER ACTIVITIES: EXPERIENCING LEADERSHIP
Leading in a Global World: It’s Not Always about the Money
Suppose you manage a team of seventy-five individuals. Your team members come from nine
different countries in Asia, Europe, and South and Central America, and they are split almost
Either alone or with a group of 3 to 5 other students, talk about and articulate 10 no-cost
motivators. Be detailed and creative with your ideas. Some critical factors to consider as you create
your no-budget program include:
1. What can you do to make the work more meaningful for such a diverse group?
2. Are there basic needs that almost everyone will respond to? If so, what are they? What can you
do to motivate for them? Review the variety of needs theories in the text for ideas.
3. What resources might be available to you to help guide your motivation efforts of such an
extremely diverse team? Be sure to consider age diversity as well as ethnic diversity.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Some items that can be looked at with no money budget might be
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1. As a manager or leader, while maintaining respect, given the diversity, you can motivate by
creating a sense of hope among employees. For such a diverse group, you can inspire hope by
2. Some aspects of the basic needs that should be considered and that all may respond to are
3. Resources that may need to be considered are physical resources and human resources to keep
Leading with Emotional Intelligence: A Mandatory Bell Curve for My
Management Class?!
Read the scenario below and break into teams to discuss the pros and cons of such a policy. Then,
answer the questions that follow.
Hello Everyone:
In an effort to bring more rigor to our course offerings and to help stem grade inflation, the
business school executive committee has decided to change the way your instructors grade this
course. Specifically, they are not allowed to grant As to anyone who misses any classes, for any
reason. Second, As cannot be granted to anyone receiving a B or below on any assignment,
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1. As a student, how do you see this policy affecting your motivation? Why?
2. What are the possible negative consequences of this policy with respect to motivation?
3. What are the possible positive consequences of this policy with respect to motivation?
4. How motivated would you be to collaborate, share notes, or help others in your class under this
policy?
5. Who wins with a policy like this?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary.
1. Students may bring up the issue that it seems that mandatory attendance is a requirement for A
Leading with Critical Thinking Skills: How Have You Been Reinforced?
Operant conditioning is a fact of life in the business environment. Review operant conditioning
theory in your text. Think of a situation from your work life, home life, or school life where you
were motivated to behave a certain way due to one of the four types of reinforcement: positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment. For each scenario, ask yourself
the following questions:
1. What was the desired behavior that was being reinforced?
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2. Was the type of reinforcement effective? If so, why? If not, why not?
3. Would another type of reinforcement have been more effective at motivating you to the desired
results? Why?
Suggested Answer:
Ethical Leadership: To Paint or Not to Paint?
Suppose that your best friend recently dropped out of school to become an artist. She finds
painting intrinsically rewarding and has been doing it for five years, but she has experienced
feelings and perhaps demotivate her. Think about what would you do, and answer the following
questions:
1. Is lying or withholding the truth justifiable if it prevents someone from becoming demotivated?
2. Have you ever lied to protect someone’s feelings or to motivate them to do something? What
role does empathy play in this scenario?
3. In situations where you are tasked to motivate others, consider what would happen if your sense
of honesty and integrity conflicted with your sense of duty?
Suggested Answer:
Learning objective: Understand the characteristics of meaningful work; Recognize the links
between motivation and psychology; Define the basic and higher-order needs theories of
motivation; Describe learning theories that relate to motivation; Outline how theories of
motivation can be integrated into daily professional and personal life.
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ADDITIONAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS
Videos:
• Dan Pink on the Science of Motivation
“Career analyst Dan Pink examines the puzzle of motivation, starting with a fact that social
• Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi on flow
“Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi asks, “What makes a life worth living?” Noting that money cannot
• Patrick Dixon – Future of Motivation
“Motivation and leadership styles, how to create effective team leadership. How to make things
happen in Business. Connect with passion, keys to motivation, leadership and change management
Motivational coach speeches from sports movies:
• Gene Hackman – Hoosiers
• Al Pacino – Any Given Sunday
• Denzel Washington – Remember the Titans
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• Kurt Russell – Miracle
INDIVIDUAL EXERCISES
1. Have students think about a job they currently have or have held in the past. Ask them what
2. Break the class into groups. Create a list of low-paying jobs like fast food worker, retail
3. Ask students to think about their dream job, a specific goal in their life, or an achievement that they
hope to realize in the future. Next, ask them to define by referencing one or several of the
4. Ask students to think of the worst job they could imagine doing; that is, a job they would hate to do,
5. Susan is a business student who is supposed to graduate at the end of the current semester. She has
already found a great job which is waiting her once she graduates in 6 weeks. The company who
TEAM EXERCISE
With businesses cutting costs on every level of their organizations, rewards and recognitions
budgets are typically considered expendable. Yet research shows rewards and recognition are very
strong motivators for employees. With that in mind, set up the exercise using the scenario below.
You may or may not suggest to the class that even though the organization has not provided any
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funding, there may be other creative ways to establish a rewards and recognition budget – the team
may hold a raffle, a fundraising event, or the team manager may ask team members to contribute a
nominal amount to create their own budget.
ADDITIONAL RESEARCH
Hope and Motivation
“Hope” can be described as an optimistic perspective on a future state or event. Alternatively, it
can be described as a general feeling that a desire will be fulfilled. But this desire may be related to
the continuation of a current state of affairs, or it may pertain to an anticipated change. Hope may
Snyder, Harris, Anderson, Holleran, Irving, Sigmon, Yoshinobu, Gibb, Langelle, and Harney
(1991) have developed a measure of hope called the “Dispositional Hope Scale,” operationalizing
it as “a cognitive set that is composed of a reciprocally derived sense of successful (a) agency
(goal-directed determination) and (b) pathways (planning ways to meet goals)” (Snyder, et al 1991,
p. 571). The Hope Scale consists of 12 questions on a 4-point Likert scale. Four questions are
directed at the concept of pathways, four at the concept of agency, and the remaining four are filler
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thinking and rational problem solving skills than to hope. Regardless, the Hope Scale is used
widely today in psychology studies (e.g., Arnau, et al 2006; Creamer et al 2009; Valle et al 2006)
Arnau, R. C., Rosen, D. H., Finch, J. F., Rhudy, J. L., & Fortunato, V. J. 2006. Longitudinal effects of hope on
depression and anxiety: A latent variable analysis. Journal of Personality, 75, 1, 43–63.