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McKee Chapter 11:
WORKING IN A VIRTUAL WORD: TECHNOLOGY
AS A WAY OF LIFE
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
11.1 Define technology and ICTs, and learn how advances in technologies change life
and work.
11.2 Learn about sociotechnical systems theory.
11.3 Explain how technology impacted people during the Industrial Revolutions.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter 11 explores the impact that information and communication technologies
(ICTs) have had on the contemporary work environment and on our personal lives. The
chapter will explore not only the technological aspect, but the other components of the
equation; people and effective communication and information sharing. We will briefly
review how technological changes have impacted human societies and how people
worked in the past. This will include a close look at sociotechnical systems theory which
illustrates the interaction between people and technology and how work is organized.
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Next, the chapter proceeds to explore the Internet and Web 2.0, from its inception
to its almost viral spread into almost every function of our personal and professional
lives. From there we move to the evolution of telecommunications from the nearly
obsolete land line of a few decades ago to the smart phone of today. Next we look at
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Teaching Objective: To increase awareness of the importance of technology in the
virtual work environment and its unprecedented impact on our personal and professional
lives.
I. How Are Life and Work Affected by Changes in Technology?
A. Technological Changes, Our Brains, and Human History
B. ICTs and Unrivaled Social Changes
1. The nation-state is now rivaled by social structures (such as Al Qaeda) that are
not located in one geographic area or centered in a single nation
C. Tech-Savvy Competencies
1. Communication competencies, delegation skills, and the ability to participate
in and manage virtual teams, abstract reasoning, systems thinking,
collaboration, Ability to experiment.
II. Why Must We Consider Technology and People When Working in a Virtual
World?
A. Technology, Students, and Dinosaurs
1. When it comes to ICTs and innovation at work, we need to pay attention to
the interaction between technology and people.
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B. Sociotechnical Systems Theory
1. Sociotechnical systems theory– Theory that examines both social and
technical characteristics of tasks and how work is organized, focusing on the
interaction between people and technologies.
a. Organizational performance is tied to the interaction of social and
III. How Did Technology Affect Life and Work during the Industrial Revolutions?
A. Technology and the First Industrial Revolution
1. Industrial Revolution- The period in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
2. Age of Enlightenment- Primarily eighteenth-century movement that fueled
B. Technology and the Second Industrial Revolution
1. Second Industrial Revolution- The period from the mid-nineteenth century
through approximately 1915 that was marked by the development of several
C. Africa, India, South America, and China during the Era of Western
Industrialization
1. Africa during the Era of Industrialization – Despite its proximity to Europe,
2. India during the Era of Industrialization – British colonial rule effectively and
3. South America during the Era of Industrialization – Although South America
4. China during the Era of Industrialization — China was not a major contributor
to the Industrial Revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
5. The World Economic Stage as Western Industrialization Waned – By the
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D. The Post-Industrial Society and the Third Industrial Revolution
1. Third Industrial Revolution –The period beginning in the mid- to late-
twentieth century through today in which economic activities are marked by
an increased focus on information and communication technologies, along
IV. How Have Computing and Telecommunication Technologies Evolved?
A. Computing Technology: From a U.S. Defense Strategy to Web 2.0
1. Internet- A global system of interlinked, hypertext documents contained
within an electronic network that connects computers and computer networks
B. The Internet, Intranets, Extranets, and the “Cloud”
1. Intranet-An internal company network that is usually accessible only to
employees.
C. The Evolution of Telecommunications – changed people’s lives, and it has
certainly changed work. Your cell phone or smart phone probably has more and
better computing power than large desktop computers of the past.
V. How Do People Use ICTs at Work?
A. Email
1. One of the leading causes of information overload, Much of the e-mail sent
2. Emoticons- Letters and symbols combined to represent emotions.
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B. Text Messages
1. Short and often incomplete, acronyms and codes for certain words that some
C. Teleconferences, Videoconferences, and Web Conferencing — Together, they
have greatly increased our ability to link people who are geographically distant
from one another.
1. Teleconferencing allows for better feedback and potentially more accurate
interpretation of messages and emotion. It also permits interaction among
participants, which can increase people’s sense of belonging and allow for
D. Tools to Help Us Work and Communicate Using ICTs
1. Groupware- A wide variety of software and technological applications that
enable people to work collaboratively via information and communication
technologies.
requires flexibility, adaptability, and openness toward constantly evolving ICTs.
VI. How Is Virtual Work Conducted?
A. Telecommuting — a telecommuter is someone who works for a company in a
different location than the company’s offices.
C. Virtual Teams
1. Virtual team- A group of individuals who collaborate on work projects while
operating from different locations, and using ICTs to establish shared goals,
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a. 1. Explicit and detailed communication about roles and relationships and
how to use ICTs, Agreement on team norms, Agreement on which ICTs
3. Trust and Accountability in Virtual Teams
a. Trust is key to results. In virtual teams, trust is an even more important
factor because virtual teams often do not have the advantage of face-to–
VII. What Is a Virtual Organization?
B. Components of Virtual Organizations
1. Structures that allow for swift adaptation to meet the needs of the
marketplace.
2. Permeable boundaries, meaning a customer may directly order a product from
a company’s online catalog, but in reality, five distinct and separate
C. Models of Virtual Organizations
1. Functional
a. Destination sites — online storefronts, advertising sites, and content sites
2. Structural
a. Virtual face model
b. Co-alliance model
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D. Traditional Organizations Are Evolving to Better Use and Offer Virtual Services
1. The Evolution of Virtual Banking
a. One of the earliest virtual banking services was the credit card, which has
2. The Evolution of Virtual Consumer Sales — Today, all large department stores
and thousands of specialty stores have Web sites to complement their physical
businesses and/or catalogs. Some companies have no storefront at all.
3. The Evolution of Virtual Education and Training — One big advantage of
virtual learning is that it has begun to level the playing field in terms of
people’s access to education and training.
a. Four cycles in virtual learning technologies evolution
1) Cycle 1 – enhances existing traditional course structure through the
VIII. What Are the Challenges of Working in a Virtual World?
A. The Challenges of the 24/7 Virtual Work World
1. Working from home can also decrease employees’ and organizations’ Carbon
footprint – amount of carbon dioxide emitted as a result of a person’s or
B. Technology and Information Overload
1. The sheer volume of communication at work can take up a huge amount of
C. The Challenge of Knowledge Management
1. Organizations and people need systems to capture, store, and disseminate
information and knowledge.
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IX. What Can HR Do to Support Virtual Work?
A. The Privacy Question: HR’s Role in Monitoring Employee Electronic
Communications
1. employers can easily access and monitor employees’ e-mails, Internet
B. Establishing Guidelines for On-the-Job Social Networking
1. Organizations must carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of
engaging social media for business use.
X. What Can We All Do to Work Most Effectively in a Virtual World?
A. Virtual Relationships Are Real Relationships
1. To be most effective when working virtually, you must focus on the
XI. A Final Word on Working in a Virtual World
A. Digital divide- The lack of access to and lack of skill in using Internet
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Discussion Questions for Objective 11.1:
1. List the ICTs you use each day, beginning with the most important device and ending
with the least important. Consider the top three items on the list. Why are they so
important to you?
Suggested Answer:
2. Access to ICTs is not equal across the globe. On the Internet, find one country where
ICTs are widely used and one that you believe has less access (e.g., in the developing
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world). What social and economic outcomes could occur if imbalances like these
continue?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. In Italy, cell phones have become a status symbol. Many
Discussion Questions for Objective 11.2:
1. Review the two points listed in the section on sociotech. Describe your school as a
sociotechnical system and explain how the people and technologies in this system work
well together and how they do not.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Some examples of the technology working with the social
2. Visit three shops in your community and observe how people work. What could be
done to improve the link between people, the physical space, and technology?
Suggested Answer:
Discussion Questions for Objective 11.3:
1. Search the Internet to find out what parts of the world are currently industrializing.
How is this wave of industrialization different from the Industrial Revolution of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries? How might this new wave of industrialization affect
global business? Has it affected you? If so, how?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Today, many developing countries are experiencing an
2. Through social networking, connect with a college student in Africa, India, South
America, or China. Discuss how industrialization has affected your respective countries,
and how more recent advances in ICTs have affected each of you personally.
Suggested Answer:
Discussion Questions for Objective 11.4:
1. Some of the technologies that ultimately supported the development of mobile phones
existed early in the last century. Develop a list of reasons that might explain why it took
so long for cell phones to be commercially available.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. During the Cold War, technology did not allow for much
2. Explain why recent advances in ICTs are contributing to changes in social structures
such as economics and politics. Begin your discussion by focusing on how people’s lives
and work have changed in your community. Then, consider how ICTs are driving
changes in parts of the world far from your home.
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. The nation-state is now rivaled by social structures (such as
Al Qaeda) that are not located in one geographical area or centered in a single nation, yet
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Discussion Questions for Objective 11.5:
1. Imagine that you are managing a team of six people—all of whom live in different
countries (e.g., the United States, England, Italy, and South Africa). Taking into
consideration time zone differences and the need for effective collaboration, create a
three-month communication plan. (Assume the team will have two face-to-face meetings
during the three-month project, with regular telecommunication occurring between
meetings.)
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Assuming the countries are all on standard time, an effective
2. The next time you need to write an e-mail related to work or school, experiment with
communicating your thoughts and emotions as fully as possible while still remaining
concise and professional. After sending your e-mail, ask for feedback from the receiver.
Suggested Answer:
Discussion Questions for Objective 11.6:
1. Consider groupthink and social loafing, which you studied in Chapter 10. Can these
things happen in a virtual team? Why or why not? If you believe it can happen, how
might you prevent it?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Groupthink can happen in a virtual team. Defined as “a
collective pattern of defensive avoidance that leads people in a group to adopt a singular
2. Consider a virtual work project or school team that you have been part of (even if it
was only partially virtual). What did you do to help the team build effective relationships
and esprit de corps?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Some practices that are useful in building effective
relationships in virtual teams are collectively deciding on the mix of communication
Discussion Questions for Objective 11.7:
1. Do you know of any business that does not have a virtual component? Should it? Why
or why not?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. Today, a wide variety of organizations conduct all or part of
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of online learning programs? Give
examples from your own experience with each of the four cycles discussed in Exhibit
11.12. Do you feel more empowered by in-class or virtual learning environments?
Suggested Answer:
Student responses will vary. One big advantage of virtual learning is that it has begun to