CHAPTER 8
Influence Tactics of Leaders
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with a wide range of influence tactics that he or
she may need to persuade others. A secondary purpose is to sensitize the reader to the difference among
ethical, ethically neutral, and unethical influence tactics.
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES
Influencing group members to achieve a worthwhile goal is a leader’s quintessential responsibility. To
become an effective leader, a person must be aware of the specific tactics leaders use to influence
others. Although this chapter focuses on influence tactics, other aspects of leadership, such as
projecting charisma and coaching, are also influence processes. Influence is defined here as the ability
I. A MODEL OF POWER AND INFLUENCE
The model shown in Figure 8–1 illustrates that the end results of a leader’s influence outcomes are
a function of the influence tactics he or she uses. The influence tactics are in turn moderated, or
affected by, the leader’s traits and behaviors and the situation.
The three possible outcomes are commitment, compliance, and resistance. Commitment
represents the highest degree of success; the target of the influence attempt is enthusiastic about
carrying out the request and makes it a full effort. Compliance means that the influence attempt is
partially successful. The target person is apathetic (not overjoyed) and makes only a modest effort
II. DESCRIPTION AND EXPLANATION OF INFLUENCE TACTICS
Influence tactics are classified here as those that are essentially ethical and honest, ethically
neutral, or those that are essentially manipulative and devious. Several of the tactics, however,
could be placed into more than one category.
A. Essentially Ethical and Honest Tactics
Used with tact, diplomacy, and good intent, the tactics described in this section can facilitate
1. Leading by Example and Respect. A simple but effective way of influencing group
2. Using Rational Persuasion. To implement this tactic, the leader uses logical arguments
and factual evidence to convince another person that a proposal or request is workable
3. Explaining Benefits to the Target. Apprising means that the influence agent explains
4. Making a Personal Appeal. Using this approach, the agent asks the target to
implement a request or support a proposal out of friendship. Or the nature of the favor
might be unspecified as in, “How would you like to do something important for me?”
5. Developing a Reputation as a Subject Matter Expert. Becoming a subject matter expert
(SME) on a topic of importance to the organization is an effective strategy for gaining
6. Exchanging Favors and Bargaining. Offering to exchange favors if another person will
7. Legitimating a Request. A legitimate request falls into one’s scope of authority and fits
8. Making an Inspirational Appeal, Being Charming, and Emotional Display. To inspire
others a leader must obviously make inspirational appeals. Such an appeal is reinforced
9. Consultation with Others. Consultation with others before making a decision is both a
leadership style and an influence technique. The influence target becomes more
10. Forming Coalitions. A coalition is a specific arrangement of parties working together
to combine their power. Coalition formation works as an influence tactic because
“there is power in numbers.” The more people you get on your side, the better. The
12. Practicing Hands-on Leadership. A hands-on leader is one who gets directly involved
in the details and processes of operations. The hands-on approach influences
subordinates to follow the beliefs, procedures, and processes of the leader.
B. Essentially Neutral Influence Tactics
If the tactics in this section are implemented with good intent they tend to be positive, but if
implemented with the intent of duping another person, they tend to be negative.
1. Ingratiation. When ingratiation takes the form of well-deserved flat5tery or
compliments, it is a positive tactic. In contrast, getting somebody to like you can be
3. Upward Appeal. In upward appeal, the leader exerts influence on a team member by
getting a person with more formal authority to carry out the influence act.
4. Co-opting Antagonists. Co-opting is also used to resolve conflict. To co-opt is to win
over opponents by making them part of your team or giving them a stake in the system.
For example, invite an antagonist to be part of your advisory team.
C. Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Tactics
The tactics described in this section are less than forthright and ethical, yet they vary in
intensity with respect to dishonesty. The first two tactics would be considered unethical and
devious by most people; second two might be within the bounds of acceptable ethics.
1. Deliberate Machiavellianism. Machiavellians are people in the workplace who
2. Gentle Manipulation of People and Situations. By making untrue statements or faking
certain behaviors, gentle manipulators get another person to comply. A widely used
4. Debasement. A subtle manipulative tactic is debasement, demeaning or insulting
oneself to control the behavior of another person.
III. LEADERSHIP INFLUENCE FOR ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Top-level leaders exert many of their influence attempts in the direction of bringing about
changes through the entire organization, often by attempting to overhaul the organization culture.
Before plunging ahead with attempts at massive cultural change, the leader needs to study the old
culture and understand why it contributed to the prosperity and growth of the organization.
Tactics for bringing about change yet assuring that a healthy culture is maintained include the
following.
1. Serve as a role model for the desired attitudes and behaviors.
3. Establish a reward system that reinforces the culture, such as giving huge suggestion
awards to promote an innovative culture.
5. Sponsor training and development programs that support the desired cultural values.
A leader who exhibited all of these behaviors would qualify as a transformational leader because
of all the positive changes.
IV. RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS AND SEQUENCING OF INFLUENCE TACTICS
Influence tactics have been studied here separately, but they must also be understood in relation to
one another.
A. Relative Effectiveness of Influence Tactics
Yukl and Tracey studied the relative effectiveness of influence tactics. Included in the
survey were 120 managers, 526 subordinates, 543 peers, and 128 superiors, all of whom also
rated the managers’ use of influence tactics. Respondents were asked which of nine
Chapter 8: Influence Tactics of Leaders 77
Personal appeal, exchange, and legitimating were used primarily in a lateral direction. The
authors caution that any tactic can trigger target resistance if it is not appropriate for the
situation or is applied unskillfully.
A study by Wells and Kipnis indicated that both managers and employees used strong
influence tactics when they distrusted the other party—either a manager or a subordinate.
The strong influence tactics studied were appeals to higher authority, assertiveness,
coalition, and sanctions.
B. The Sequencing of Influence Tactics
In general, begin with the most positive, or least abrasive, tactic. Use stronger tactics only as
needed. A sensible approach is to begin with low-cost, low-risk tactics. If the outcome is
C. Implicit Leadership Theories and Leadership Influence
People are more likely to be influenced by leaders who match their expectation of what a
leader should be. Implicit leadership theories are personal assumptions about the traits and
abilities that characterize an ideal organizational leader. The assumptions are stored in
V. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
To become an effective leader, learning to use influence tactics comfortably is essential. Even if
you use influence tactics naturally, without giving them much thought, there is still more to learn.
A study showed that managers tend to use tough follow-up tactics when subordinate’s refusal of a
78 Chapter 8: Influence Tactics of Leaders
COMMENTS ON EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-1: Survey of Influence Tactics
Here is an opportunity for students to think through how frequently they use certain influence tactics.
An intended byproduct of completing this questionnaire is to remind the reader of the existence of
certain influence tactics that might be added to their repertoire. In this way, skill development is
possible.
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-2: Measure of Ingratiating
Behavior in Organizational Settings (MIBOS)
This listing of ingratiating behaviors can also be classified as political tactics. As such, the instrument
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-1: Influence Tactics
Role playing a situation in which a group of executives assemble about the launch of a major plan
is a natural setting for the use of influence tactics. The group members who are skeptical about the
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-2: Identifying Influence Tactics
The task required by this skill-building exercise should be inherently interesting for many
students—the opportunity to identify the rather harsh influence tactics a colleague is using. Here
are two possible answers for analyzing the tactics of Gina: (1) “I want to work with all of you to
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-3: Applying Influence Tactics
Applying a leadership skill in field situations can be valuable experience. At a minimum, such practice
illustrates the point that a combination of study and practice is important for leadership skill
development.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-4: My Leadership Portfolio
Executing influence tactics is at the heart of exercising leadership, making it quite valuable for
the student to record an instance of exercising influence. Also, if the student of leadership has
not attempted to exert influence recently, this exercise might serve as a reminder to do so.
Chapter 8: Influence Tactics of Leaders 79
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-5: A Leadership Essay
Admittedly the subject of this essay might seem similar to one found in a Sunday newspaper magazine
COMMENTS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the following analogy: Influence is to leadership, as eggs are to an omelet.
2. Which influence tactic described in this chapter do you think would work the best for you? Why?
3. How might a manager use “leading by example” to help develop ethical behavior in his or her
unit?
Leading by example is often an effective vehicle for developing ethical behavior. The leader
behaves as ethically as possible, thereby serving as a model for direct reports. To implement this
technique, the leader would have to be faced with an ethical dilemma, make an ethical decision,
4. With so many workers habituated to using mobile devices for so much of their work, should
company management develop apps for influencing subordinates?
5. Assume that as their leader, you wanted to influence minimum wage workers in a plastic bottle
recycling center to work faster. Which one or two influence tactics are likely to be effective?
6. Identify two exchanges of favor you have seen or can envision on the job.
80 Chapter 8: Influence Tactics of Leaders
7. Why is developing a reputation as a subject matter expert important for a leader is leadership
deals so heavily with interpersonal skills?
Although leadership deals heavily with interpersonal skills, a leader’s technical or business
knowledge is still a major approach to influencing people. For example, when CEOs are
8. How might a business owner use the technique of tapping social norms to influence his or her
employees to lead a healthier lifestyle?
9. Over a long period of time, Sears has slipped from being America’s largest retailer to placing 41
in a recent analysis. What cultural change can you suggest to help company leadership at Sears
restore some of its past glory?
The answer to this question is much more complex than might appear on the surface. Young
people, in particular, no longer think of Sears as being so relevant to their needs despite the
10. Get the opinion of an experienced leader as to the most effective influence tactics. Share your
findings with class members.
One approach to gather information for this question is to present the leader with a list of the
tactics described in this chapter. Another approach is to be less structured, which will probably
result in the mention of various emotional tactics.
PLAUSIBLE RESPONSES TO CASE QUESTIONS
Leadership Case Problem A: Steve Tackles Mall World
1. In what way does this case suggest that a culture change might be necessary at Mall World?
2. What steps might Steve take to influence his managers that they need to worry more about the
future of Mall World, as well as taking action steps to improve occupancy rates?
3. Which specific influence tactics do you recommend that Steve use with his managers?
Steve might lead by example by investigating new opportunities for mall occupancy himself,
such as “pop–up stores” for the holidays, and government offices. He might also use rational
persuasion by presenting facts about the challenges and opportunities facing shopping malls.
The occasional inspirational appeal about a brighter future might also be warranted. Steve
Leadership Case Problem B: Maya the Manipulator
This case illustrates two specific ways in which a leader/manager might manipulate subordinates.
This could be helpful in understanding what manipulation can mean in practice because so often
the term manipulation is used without providing a specific example of the behavior.
1. In which specific ways is Maya being a manipulator?
2. To what extent do you think Maya’s behavior is justifiable?
82 Chapter 8: Influence Tactics of Leaders
Many readers of this case will regard Maya’s manipulative behavior as totally unacceptable
because she is using unethical influence tactics. Yet a few other readers will contend that Maya
3. How should Ivan and Courtney have handled the situation?
A bold and aggressive approach for Ivan and Courtney would have been to confront Maya and say
they feel that they are being manipulated. An alternative approach would be to have prepared a
4. What suggestions might you offer Maya for being an effective leader?