Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-1
CHAPTER 6
SOURCE, MESSAGE, AND CHANNEL FACTORS
Chapter Overview
This chapter is a continuation of the discussion of communications theory and focuses on the controllable
variables that are a part of this process including source, message and channel factors. The chapter builds
on the material in Chapter 5 as decisions regarding each of these communication variables should take
into account how they impact or affect various stages or steps of the response process of the receiver. The
Learning Objectives
2. To examine considerations involved in the selecting a source or communicator of a promotional
message.
4. To consider how the channel or medium used to deliver a promotional message influences the
communication process.
Chapter and Lecture Outline
I. INTRODUCTION AND PROMOTIONAL PLANNING THROUGH THE PERSUASION
MATRIX
This chapter analyzes the major controllable variables in the communications process—source, message
and channel or medium. Characteristics of the source are examined along with how they impact cognitive
processing. Attention is also focused on the message itself, including how structure and type of appeal
influence communication effectiveness, and on issues related to the channel or medium by which the
message is communicated. Source, message and channel factors were introduced in the previous chapter
as controllable elements in the communications model and it was noted that decisions regarding each of
these components must take into account how they interact with the response process.
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-2
Professor Notes
II. SOURCE FACTORS
The source of a marketing communication can be viewed as a multifaceted concept since many types of
sources can be included in a promotional situation. We will use the term source to mean the person who
is involved in the communication of a promotional message in either a direct or indirect manner. A direct
source is a spokesperson who delivers a promotional message, demonstrates a product or service, and/or
endorses a product or service. Spokespeople used in advertisements or a company’s sales representatives
are examples of direct sources. An indirect source does not actually deliver a message but rather is used to
A. Source Credibility—refers to the extent to which the source is perceived as having knowledge,
skill or experience relevant to the communication topic and can be trusted to give an unbiased
opinion or present objective information on the issue. Information from a credible source can
influence beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and/or behavior through a process known as internalization
whereby the receiver desires to have an objectively correct or “right” position on an issue.
1. There are two important dimensions to credibility—expertise and trustworthiness. Examples
are provided regarding the application of expertise and trustworthiness to promotional
2. Using corporate leaders as spokespeople—many companies believe the use of their president
or CEO is the ultimate expression of the company’s commitment to quality and customer
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-3
3. Limitations of credible sources—Marketers generally seek to use credible sources to deliver
their promotional messages. However, in some situations a high-credibility source may be
less effective than a moderate- or low-credibility source such as when the receiver has a
B. Source Attractiveness—a commonly used source characteristic in advertising and personal selling
is that of attractiveness. Attractiveness also has several sub-components including similarity,
familiarity and likability. The process through which attractiveness leads to persuasion is
identification whereby the receiver seeks some type of relationship with the source by adopting a
similar position. Examples are provided of the application of source attractiveness in the selection
of sales representatives as well as in advertising through the use of celebrities and decorative
models.
1. Applying similarity—marketers recognize that people are more likely to be influenced by a
2. Issues in using celebrities—advertisers have long recognized the value of using celebrities
such as television and movie stars, athletes, musicians or other popular figures to endorse
their products and services. Celebrities are used because they have “stopping power” and
draw attention to advertising messages. Another reason is the expectation that the respect,
a. Overshadowing the product—while a celebrity may draw attention to an ad, consumers
may focus on the celebrity rather than the product or service and the advertising message.
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
d. Risk to the advertiser—marketers must consider whether there is any risk involved in
having their company or products associated with a celebrity. Several well-known
entertainers and athletes who were being used as advertising spokespersons have been
involved in activities that were potentially embarrassing to the companies whose products
e. Matching product, target market and celebrity—one of the most important considerations
in the use of celebrities is to make sure they are properly matched with the image of the
product and the characteristics of the target market. Perceived expertise of celebrities
relative to the product they are endorsing has been shown to be an important factor that
determines their effectiveness.
3. Understanding the meaning of celebrity endorsers—advertisers should use celebrities who are
connected in some way to the product or services they are endorsing. This means that
marketers must understand the image and meaning celebrities project to consumers.
A very insightful perspective on celebrity endorsement based on meaning transfer has been
developed by McCracken. His model, which is shown in Figure 6-4 of the text, suggests that
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-5
4. Decorative and physically attractive models—a common technique used by advertisers to
draw attention to an ad and enhance its effectiveness is the use of a physically attractive model.
Often these models are used in a passive or “decorative” manner rather than as active
communicators. A number of factors must be considered in using decorative models such as
C. Source Power—A source has power when he or she can actually administer rewards and
punishment to the receiver. Perceived power depends on several factors such as perceived
control, concern and scrutiny. Power influences persuasion through the compliance process
III. MESSAGE FACTORS
The manner in which marketing communications are presented is very important in determining their
effectiveness. Consideration must be given not only to message content, but also to how the information
will be structured for presentation and the type of appeal that will be used.
A. Message Structure—an important consideration in the development of a promotional message is
the manner or framework used for structuring or communicating the information. An important
aspect of message strategy is knowing the best way to communicate message points or elements.
A number of message structure considerations are discussed in the text including:
1. Order of presentation—should important message points or arguments be placed at the
beginning of the message, in the middle or at the end? A primacy effect suggests that the
2. Conclusion drawing—should a message draw an explicit conclusion for the audience or allow
them to form their own conclusions? Research has shown that, in general, messages with
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
3. Message sidedness—should a marketing communication use a one-sided message whereby
only positive attributes or benefits of a product or service are mentioned or a two-sided
message where both strong and weak points or attributes are presented? IMC Perspective 6–2
4. Refutation—this is a special type of two-sided message whereby both sides of an issue are
5. Verbal versus visual messages—both the verbal and nonverbal or visual portions of an
B. Message Appeals—another important aspect of message strategy concerns the manner or style
used to communicate the promotional message. One of the most important creative strategy
decisions involves the choice of an appropriate appeal. Some promotional messages uses rational
appeals and are designed to communicate information regarding a product or service and appeal
to the logical aspects of the consumer decision–making process. Other messages appeal to
feelings in attempt to evoke some type of emotional reaction. Three types of appeals are
discussed in the text:
1. Comparative Advertising—comparative advertising refers to the practice of either directly or
indirectly naming one or more competitors in an ad and usually making a comparison on one
or more specific product or service attributes. This form of advertising became a legitimate
and popular practice after the Federal Trade Commission began advocating its use in 1972
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-7
2. Fear appeals—are used to create anxiety in the audience and arouse individuals to take action.
Fear can stress negative consequences that may occur if behavior is not altered such as ads
that warn people not to smoke or drink and drive. Fear can also be used through the threat of
3. Humor appeals—are among the most popular and best remembered of all advertising
messages. Advertisers use humor for a number of reasons including attracting and holding
consumers’ attention, putting them in a favorable mood, creating affect that may transfer to
6-6 and should be discussed. Another important issue deserving inter consideration is whether
humorous commercials wearout and lose their effectiveness more quickly than commercials
that use a serious appeal. The wearout problem is discussed in IMC Perspective 6-3.
Professor Notes
IV. CHANNEL FACTORS
The final controllable variable of the communications process is the channel, or medium, used to deliver
the message to the target audience. Some general considerations regarding channel factors are presented
here.
A. Personal versus Nonpersonal Channels—Effective communication also depends on the channel or
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-8
B. Effects of Alternative Mass Media— most promotional efforts such as advertising involve
nonpersonal communication through the mass media. The mass media that advertisers use to
1. Differences in information processing—there are very basic differences among alternative
mass media in terms of the manner and rate at which information is transmitted and can be
processed by the message recipient. Information from the print media is self-paced while
information from the broadcast media of radio and television is externally paced. There are
important implications for advertising via each type of medium.
C. Effects of Context and Environment—reactions to and interpretation of an advertising message
can be a function of not only message content but also the context or environment in which the ad
appears. A qualitative media effect refers to the positive or negative influence the medium may
D. Clutter—another aspect of the media environment that is important to advertisers is the problem
of clutter, which refers to all the non-program material that appears in the broadcast environment
Professor Notes
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-9
Teaching Suggestions
The material in this chapter is generally very well received by students as most of them have opinions
regarding whom they consider a good or bad advertising spokesperson or the type of message appeals
they like or dislike. This chapter is designed to build on the material in Chapter 5 by discussing how
decisions regarding source, message and channel factors impact on the various stages of the response
and TV/movie stars to appear in their commercials. You might also encourage students to consider the
risks involving the use of celebrities. For example, NBA basketball super star Kobe Bryant was dropped
by a number of companies when he was accused of sexually assaulting a woman at a Colorado resort.
While the charges were dropped, Nike was the only company that has retained him as an advertising
spokesperson for several years. However, in May 2008, Vitaminwater signed him to an endorsement
contract which is very interesting considering that the brand is now owned by the Coca Cola Company
which had dropped him as an endorser for its Sprite brand. Another high profile athlete whose off the
field behavior cost him several lucrative endorsement deals is Atlanta Falcons quarterback Michael Vick.
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-10
Answers To Discussion Questions
1. The chapter opener discusses the negative publicity Tiger Woods has had resulting from the extensive
media scrutiny of his extramarital affairs. Choose one of the companies or brands that Woods is still
endorsing and discuss the pros and cons of retaining him as a spokesperson. Do you think this
company will review its contract with him when it expires? Why or why not? (L02)
Over the past decade Tiger Woods was arguably one of the most effective endorsers ever used by
marketers in terms of the return on investment they have received from his services as an advertising
spokesperson. As noted in the opening vignette, he has been endorser for a number of
companies/brands including Nike, General Motors (Buick), Accenture, Gillette and Gatorade. There
are a number of factors that accounted for Woods’ success as an endorser. First of all, he is highly
recognizable and is known to consumers around the world as golf is a global sport and golfers get a
Most of Tiger Wood’ value as an endorser quickly declined following the car accident outside his
home and the revelations of his extramarital affairs. Woods transgression made a mess of his
personal life as his wife filed for divorce and he did not win a golf tournament in 2010 as his golf
game deteriorated. While several companies including Accenture and PepsiCo dropped Woods as an
endorser, he still has endorsement deals with a number of high profile companies/brands including
Nike, Tag Heur, Upper Deck and EA Sports. Students should be asked to choose one of these
2. Discuss how marketers can use the persuasion matrix shown in Figure 6-1 to plan their integrated
marketing communication programs. Choose a TV commercial or print ad and use the persuasion
matrix to evaluate how it might influence consumers’ response processes. (L01)
Chapter 6 – Source, Message, and Channel Factors
6-11
The persuasion matrix helps promotional planners see how each controllable element in the
communications process (source, message, channel, and receiver) interacts with the consumers’
response process. Marketers must consider how decisions regarding these controllable elements of
3. Discuss the three primary source attributes noted by Herbert Kelman and the different processes by
which they can influence attitude and/or behavior change. Find an example of an advertisement or
other type of promotional message that utilizes each attribute. (L02)
The three primary source attributes noted by Kelman are credibility, attractiveness and power.
Credibility influences attitudes and/or behavior through a process known as internalization whereby
the receiver adopts the opinion of the credible communication because s/he he feels it is accurate and
integrates it into his or her belief system. The two basic components of source credibility are expertise
and trustworthiness. Expertise refers to the extent to which the source is perceived as having
The source characteristic of attractiveness operates through the process of identification whereby the
receiver is motivated to seek some type of relationship with the source and thus adopts similar beliefs,
attitudes, preferences or even behavior. The components of source attractiveness include similarity,
familiarity and liking. Similarity is based on the sharing of interests, lifestyles, opinions, needs, goals
and the like. Similarity is used in advertising by choosing spokespersons or individuals to appear in