Chapter 4 – Perspectives on Consumer Behavior
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CHAPTER 4
PERSPECTIVES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Chapter Overview
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the field of consumer behavior and to demonstrate how
knowledge and understanding of the consumer can be used in developing promotional strategies and
programs. This chapter utilizes the basic consumer decision making process model as a framework for
examining consumer behavior. The chapter takes the student through the various stages of this model and
discusses what occurs at each and how advertising and other forms of promotion can be used to influence
consumer decision making. The influence of various psychological concepts or influences such as
Learning Objectives
2. To understand the consumer decision-making process and how it varies for different types of
purchases.
4. To recognize various approaches to studying the consumer learning process and their implications
for advertising and promotion.
6. To understand alternative approaches to studying consumer behavior.
Chapter and Lecture Outline
I. AN OVERVIEW OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
A. A brief introduction to the field of consumer behavior and an indication of the increased
importance that this domain of study has assumed in marketing would be a good starting point.
The instructor should discuss the fact that to operationalize the marketing concept it is critical that
the marketer have an understanding of some of the consumer decision making processes.
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B. Consumer Behavior can be defined as the process and activities that people engage in when
searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services so
as to satisfy their needs and desires.
The decision process model should be introduced and a brief description given of the five stages:
• Problem recognition
• Information Search
Professors Notes
II. THE CONSUMER DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The consumer purchase decision process is generally viewed as consisting of sequential steps or stages
through which the buyer passes in purchasing a product or service. Figure 4-1 of the text shows the
various steps in this process as well as the relevant internal psychological processes that occur at each
stage such as motivation, perception, attitude formation, integration and learning.
A. Problem recognition—The first step in the consumer decision-making process is that of problem
recognition, which is caused by a difference between the consumer’s ideal state and actual state.
There are various causes of sources of problem recognition. These include:
1. Out of stock
2. Dissatisfaction
3. New needs/wants
Examining Consumer Motivations—the way a consumer perceives a need and becomes
motivated to solve a consumption problem will influence the remainder of the decision making
Hierarchy of needs—one of the most basic and popular approaches to understanding consumer
motivation is the classic theory of human motivation popularized by Maslow. His hierarchy of
needs postulates five basic levels of human needs:
• physiological needs
Chapter 4 – Perspectives on Consumer Behavior
• esteem needs
• self-actualization needs
The implications of Maslow’s hierarchy for developing advertisements that appeal to different
types of needs should be discussed.
motivation research are discussed.
Problems and Contributions—Because of problems with reliability and validity, and the fact that
consumers were often considered as unaware and unable to control their motivations, this area
has received substantial criticism. Nevertheless, as noted in the text, the 1990’s has seen a return
of this theory in the formulation of advertising programs and strategies as demonstrated in this
chapter.
B. Information Search—the second step in the consumer decision making process is information
Perception—perception is the process by which an individual receives selects, organizes, and
interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world. There are a number of
processes involved in perception which determine how marketing information will be received:
• Sensation—the immediate and direct response of the senses to a stimulus such as an
advertisement.
C. Alternative Evaluation—after acquiring information during the information search stage the
consumer moves to alternative evaluation. At this stage the consumer compares the various
brands and services he or she has identified as being capable of solving the consumption problem
and satisfying the needs or motives that initiated the decision process. The evoked set is a subset
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1. Evaluative criteria and consequences—evaluative criteria are the dimensions or attributes of
a product or service that are used to compare different alternatives. Consequences are the
2. Attitudes—attitudes refer to a summary construct that represents an individual’s overall
feelings or evaluation of an object such as a brand, a company, another person, a retail store,
or even an advertisement. Attitudes are one of the most heavily studied concepts in consumer
behavior. Marketer’s keen interest in attitudes is based on the assumption that they are related
to purchase behavior. Advertising and promotion are used to create favorable attitudes toward
new products/services, reinforce or maintain existing favorable attitudes, and/or change
negative attitudes.
a. Multiattribute attitude models have been used by marketers to study consumer
b. Attitude change strategies—The multi-attribute model focuses on the underlying
structure or basis of an attitude and provides insight into ways marketers can influence or
change consumers’ attitudes such as:
• increasing or changing the strength or belief rating of a brand on an important
attribute
3. Integration Processes and Decision Rules—an important aspect of the alternative
evaluation stage is the way consumers integrate or combine information to evaluate
alternatives and arrive at a purchase decision. Consumers may use formal integration rules
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D. Purchase Decision—as an outcome of the alternative evaluation stage the consumer may develop
a purchase intention or predisposition to buy a certain brand. Once a purchase intention has been
made and an intention formed, the consumer must still implement it and make the actual
E. Post-purchase Evaluation—the consumer decision process does not end once the product or
service has been purchased. After using a product or service the consumer compares the level of
F. Variations in Consumer Decision Making—consumers do not always engage in all five steps of
the purchase decision process nor proceed in the sequence presented. There are three major
variations of the consumer decision making process:
1. Routine response behavior—many purchase decisions for low-priced, frequently purchased
products are based on a habitual or routine choice process consisting of little more than
2. Limited problem solving—often a consumer has a limited amount of experience in
purchasing a product or service but in somewhat aware or knowledgeable of the brands
3. Extended problem solving—the most complex and detailed form of decision making occurs
when consumers have little, if any, knowledge regarding the criteria to use in making a
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III. THE CONSUMER LEARNING PROCESS
Up to this point of the chapter, the focus on consumer behavior has been from a cognitive orientation. The
decision process model looks at the consumer as a problem solver and information processor who
engages in a variety of mental activities in evaluating and choosing among alternatives. There are,
however, alternative perspectives regarding how consumers acquire the knowledge and experience they
A. Behavioral Learning Theory—behavioral learning theory emphasizes the role of external or
environmental stimuli in causing behavior while minimizing the significance of internal
psychological processes. There are two major behavioral learning approaches to learning:
1. Classical conditioning—this approach assumes that learning is essentially an associative
process whereby the relationship between an unconditioned stimulus and conditioned
2. Operant conditioning—this approach, which is sometimes called instrumental conditioning,
requires the individual to operate or act on some aspect of the environment for learning to
occur. Learning occurs as a result of the outcomes or consequences associated with a
B. Cognitive Learning—Cognitive learning theory has as its basis a problem-solving, information
processing, reasoning approach to human behavior. In contrast to behavioral learning theory
perspectives, cognitive orientations emphasize internal processing or thinking. Many consumer
Professor’s Notes
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IV. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Consumers do not make purchase decisions in isolation as there are various external factors that may
influence their purchase decisions. These include:
A. Culture—culture refers to the complexity of learned meanings, values norms, and customs
shared by members of a society. The importance of understanding the impact of culture on
consumer behavior has become increasingly important as marketers expand their international
marketing efforts.
D. Reference Groups—a reference group is a group whose perspective or values are being used by
an individual as the basis for his/her judgments, opinions and actions. Marketers utilize reference
group influences in developing advertisements by associating, or sometimes disassociating,
products, services or certain behaviors with certain types of groups.
F. Situational Determinants—another type of external factor that promotional planners must
consider is that of situational determinants on consumer behavior. Three types of situational
determinants may have an effect—the specific usage situation, the purchase situation, and the
communications situation.
Professor’s Notes
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V. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
In the past decade or so, a growing number of consumer researchers have examined this process from a
different perspective, often referred to as alternative, interpretive, postmodern, or post positivist.
Regardless of the name, alternative ways of attempting to understand consumer behavior assume a cross–
disciplinary approach. Those who conduct research from this perspective believe that consumers’
decision-making processes do not occur in isolation. Rather, they view consumer decision making as
influenced by cultural, linguistic, and historical factors. In examining the significance of communications,
Professors Notes
Teaching Suggestions
Because of the consumer emphasis dictated by the marketing concept, consumer behavior has increased
in importance, and has found its way into virtually every aspect of marketing. Of course, advertising and
promotion are no exception. As a result, it is very important for the student to understand that advertising
and promotion strategies are designed for the purpose of influencing customer behavior. Thus, it is
important for promotional planners to have some understanding of consumer behavior including the way
Answers to Discussion Questions
1. Consumers experience different forms of problem recognition. Explain each type of problem
recognition and give an example of a purchase of this type. (LO2)
As noted in the text, problem recognition occurs when the consumers’ actual and ideal states are
different. There are a variety of reasons this may occur:
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Out of stock—perhaps the simplest form of problem recognition occurs when one is out of a needed
product—for example, being out of salt or sugar;
2. The chapter discusses the role of neuroscience in understanding consumer behavior. Discuss what is
meant by neuroscience and provide examples of how this field of study may be helpful to consumer
behavior.(LO3)
Using technologies originally developed for the medical sciences, marketers are now studying
physiological responses to advertising. By scanning the brain and observing chemical activity or
3. How might one’s social class influence their consumer behaviors? Give examples of products and/or
services that might be influenced by social class standing. (LO5)
Different social classes have distinct purchasing behaviors. Besides the fact that income (as part of
the social class index) allows for the purchase of different products and services, social classes
develop different buying characteristics as a result of social interactions. Studies have shown that
Chapter 4 – Perspectives on Consumer Behavior
4. There has been controversy over the existence of subliminal advertising for quite some time. Explain
why. Why do you think this topic continues to hold so much interest? (LO3)
Subliminal advertising is an intriguing concept. The fact that someone could manipulate us without
our even knowing it is almost out of a science fiction movie. At the same time, many of us have felt
at one time or another that we have seen or heard subliminal messages, and believe that they exist.
The fact is, the topic is an interesting one, and everyone seems to have their own examples.
5. Explain the process of selective perception, and the various ways in which consumers may filter
information. What is the relevance of this for consumer behavior?(LO3)
Psychologists know that consumers filter information. Information that is not relevant, or that may
cause inconsistencies may be screened and information that supports one’s previous learning and
attitudes may be done so as well. Selective perception may occur through perceptual defenses for
perceptual vigilance.
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6. Why is understanding consumer behavior of such importance to marketers? Give examples of how
marketers apply their understanding of consumer behavior to their marketing strategies. (LO1)
When marketers moved from a sales orientation to a marketing orientation, it became necessary to
have a more in-depth understanding of the consumer. Rather that developing products and then
trying to push them onto consumers, marketers’ shifted their focus more to understanding
consumers’ needs and wants and developing products and services to satisfy them.
7. Recently there has been a great deal of attention paid to environmental issues resulting in a number
of companies embarking on “green” campaigns. Discuss some of the reasons as to why companies
are developing such campaigns. Do you think these campaigns will change consumers’ attitudes
toward the environment and/or these companies?(LO5)
It seems these days that everyone is trying to convince the consumer that they are green. From the oil
companies to beverage companies, green is in. There is even a green cable TV network devoted to
showing interested parties how to be green.
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8. One of the fastest growing market segments in the United States are Hispanics. Discuss how
marketers have attempted to appeal to Hispanics. Do Hispanics require a different set of IMC
strategies than others? Explain. (LO5)
Marketers now have more Hispanic media, more Hispanic programming and employ more Hispanic
9. Explain the differences between functional and psychosocial consequences. Give examples of
advertising that focus on both types. (LO3)
Functional consequences can be thought of as those that will occur when something fails or does not
perform properly. For example,, if one purchases a product that does not work well (a computer
printer that breaks frequently) the negative outcomes are easily noticeable, and lead to problems
10. Discuss some of the problems associated with psychoanalytic theory and its applications to
understanding consumer behavior. Also, discuss some of the contributions made to our
understanding of consumers. (LO3)
Most of the problems regarding psychoanalytic theory are based on issues relating reliability and
validity. Because of the research methodologies employed, some psychologists are skeptical of the
findings, and argue that without further proof, they cannot be relied upon. Indeed, conducting
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Additional Discussion Questions (not in text)
11. The text discusses the use of cultural anthropology to understand consumer behaviors. Why is it
necessary for marketers to use alternative approaches to consumer behavior? (LO6)
Once marketers recognized the necessity of understanding consumers’ behaviors and the fact that not
all decisions are based on rational economic bases, they turned to psychology to gain insights. The
early days of research in consumer behavior, therefore, was dominated by psychological research. As
consumer behavior matured, those in the discipline recognized the fact that external factors such as
social class, family, cultural and subcultural factors also influenced the purchase decision process.
12. Discuss both sides of the argument (pro or con) for using neuro-science in consumer research.(LO6)
The use of neuro-science –a brain scan imaging technique that maps physiological reactions within
the mind—has had the majority of its applications in the medical field. Now, marketers have
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Opponents of the use of neuro-sciences have a different perspective. Calling the technique
“Orwellian”, they contend that probing our minds is an unfair invasion of privacy. While some argue
that the technique does not work, and that the results are being blown out of proportion, others are
concerned that they work too well. If so, there is a potential that advertising could become too
effective, and that consumers could be manipulated –a similar argument to those provided by
opponents of subliminal advertising usage. At particular risk they say, are unsuspecting children,
though increased consumption of alcohol, cigarettes and gambling may also results. They see the
research as contributing to the social ills of societies, through the manipulation of effective marketing
strategies.
13. Explain how a consumer’s lifestyle may impact consumer behavior. (LO5)
While many companies profile their target markets based on demographics, psychographic bases of
segmentation such as lifestyles often prove to be more effective for the marketing of some products.
The reason for this is that one’s lifestyle may better reflect what products and/or services consumers
might need or want. Consider the following examples:
Similar demographics/different lifestyles—is a 35 year old male, employed as an attorney making
$85,000/year and living a rural life the same as the same demographic living in a city? Besides the
fact that he or she may have more disposable income living in a rural area, many other factors
involving his or her lifestyle will impact their consumer behaviors. Does one need a car in an urban
area? Are there more opportunities to engage in fishing, biking, hiking, etc. in rural areas? If these
things are true, they would definitely have an impact on one’s lifestyles and the products and services
needed to maintain these lifestyles.
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14. Explain how the screening processes involved in selective perception might impact a viewer of
television commercials. (LO3)
There are different ways that selective perception may occur. In perceptual vigilance, the receiver is
using the perceptual process to notice stimuli which bolster or support ones beliefs, while perceptual
defenses are enacted to filter out discrepant information that may lead to inconsistencies.
Selective comprehension involves the interpretation of information on the basis of the receiver’s
existing beliefs, attitudes, motives and experiences. For example, information may be distorted in the
consumer’s mind depending on their attitudes, etc. Consider a buyer deciding between two cars—one
of which gets 23 mpg and the other 29 mpg. The perceptions of these mileage claims may differ
depending on which automobile the potential buyer initially prefers. If she is considering the car with
the higher mileage rating, the 29 mpg will be elevated in importance, and seemingly a lot more than
the 23 mpg. If the initial preference is for the 23 mpg car, the difference may be perceived as less than
it actually is, or of less importance. Upon leaving the showroom, and thinking about the differences,
the buyer may engage in selective retention, remembering some information while not remembering
15. Studies have shown that the changing teenager market is making it more difficult to reach
this segment. Discuss some of the changes that have occurred, and the implications for
marketing. How does reaching this market differ from other age segments? (LO1)
Chapter 4 – Perspectives on Consumer Behavior
Like any other age segment, marketers must approach the teen market with an understanding of their
target audience. We must understand their values, lifestyles, media habits and consumer behaviors,
and approach them as a separate market segment. Their shopping habits are different from previous
generations, and they now have many more options—and more money—available to them.
Nevertheless, they remain brand conscious and respond to product placements featuring celebrities.
Attempting to reach this market by pursuing previous strategies targeting to teens is doomed to fail.A
number of factors may lead to problem recognition among consumers. Discuss the various causes of
problem recognition, and give an example of each.
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16. Explain the concept of an evoked set. Why is this concept important to marketers? Give examples of
an evoked set, and how marketers might attempt to influence consumers to gain consideration. (LO2)
Consider the purchase of a new car. The choice of alternatives runs from low end entries like
Hyundai, Kia, etc. to expensive luxury and sports cars—not to mention SUV’s and others. It is highly
unlikely that a consumer would consider the entire range of possibilities. The list would be narrowed
down given decision criteria to a much smaller grouping, based on purchase criteria. It may lead to
consideration of only Japanese cars, American cars or German cars. It might be limited based on price
or past experiences. Whatever the criteria used, the entire list of cars will not be considered.
17. This chapter details a number of external influences on consumer behavior. Describe each of these
influences, explaining how it might have an impact on consumer behavior, and provide an example of
each. (LO5)
As can be seen in Figure 4-10, there are five external influences on consumer behavior. Theses will
be discussed, with examples of their influence.
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Social Class—the relatively homogeneous division in society into which people sharing similar
lifestyles, values, norms, interests and behaviors can be grouped is known as social class. Virtually all
societies have these stratifications. In the U.S., social class is determined by an index based on
occupational status, educational attainment, and income (other cultures may have different criteria).
The three classes in the U.S.—upper, middle, and lower—will exhibit different purchasing behaviors,
media habits, shopping habits, lifestyles, etc. Marketers must identify these patterns to successfully
attract these segments.
Situational Determinants—The specific situation in which the consumer plans to use the product or
brand may directly affect the choice or consumption behavior. For example, consider the purchase of
a bottle of wine for dinner. If dining alone or with the family on a regular night, one brand might be
appropriate. On the other hand, for a special occasion with the family, a more expensive choice might
be made. Now consider the situation if friends, associates or fellow-workers were coming for
dinner—might the choice change again? The choice of clothes will also be situational. We often buy
new clothes for vacations, special events, parties, etc.
18. In the text it was indicated that families may influence the consumer decision-making process.
Describe how various family members may assume the different roles described in Figure 4-11. Also
explain how these roles might change depending upon the product under consideration. (LO5)
Research has shown that the family can both directly and passively influence the consumer decision
process. The amount of influence they may exert will depend on the product category, the level of
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Initiator—different family members may initiate the purchase decision process. For example, a
teenager who is very much into music may request the family consider the purchase of a new music
system. The mother or the father may initiate the idea for a new family car, etc.
The influencer—each family member may have their own criteria in mind in the purchase decision
process. The father may want an economical car, the mother an SUV for functional purposes, the
children something more sporty to impress their friends. Again, depending on their involvement and
expertise, various family members may be able to exert more or less influence. Another example
might be a stereo system. If the teenager is more involved in music than other family members, they
may have more interest and be more able to exert more influence than those with less product
expertise.
The purchasing agent—regardless of the various roles assumed, the parent(s) may actually be the
purchasing agent. When children are not of age to make the purchase, do not qualify for financing, or
for other reasons, the parent may act as the purchasing agent to expedite or culminate the purchase
decision.
Chapter 4 – Perspectives on Consumer Behavior
IMC Exercise
Have the class collect ads that reflect various concepts of consumer behavior discussed in the text
AdForum Exercise: “Understanding the Use of Theory in Developing Advertising
Appeals.”
(See Advertising and Promotion Playlist, Chapter 4)
This chapter discussed some of the theoretical bases that have been examined in an attempt to
understand consumer behaviors. The playlist for Chapter 2 contains a variety of commercials and
print ads that may be based on one or more of these theories. Examine each of the ads included here,
and answer the following questions:
1. Explain how each ad reflects one of the theories discussed in the chapter. Which of these
theories best explains the appeal being used?
2. Are there alternative theories that could also be used to describe the appeals?
3. Discuss how three of the commercials might have created appeals employing one of the other
theories as a foundation.