International Organizational Behavior2e Chapter 4 Page 1
CHAPTER 4
MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES ACROSS CULTURES
AND BORDERS
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
Character consists of what you do on the third and fourth tries.
John Michener
As illustrated by these quotes, there are some wide differences in views about motivation. Some
people believe that motivation is really all about effort or persistence (Michener). Some people it
has a lot to do with the ability to inspire others (Laird), others believe that structure can impede
or foster inherently high motivation (Covey). There are people all over the globe thinking and
theorizing about motivation. As a result, there are many different perspectives about what gets
CHAPTER REVIEW OUTLINE
MOTIVATION ACROSS BORDERS
Motivating across borders or cultural contexts complicates matters and makes motivation an
even bigger challenge. Western approaches to motivation typically reflect person-focused and
goal-driven beliefs—features that created and shaped those cultures in the first place. This may
severely limit their applicability in places or with employees who embrace different values.
Many experts believe that features that produce motivated employees and how those employees
respond to direction and feedback along the way may vary dramatically on cultural lines.
To be effective, managers need to know which motivation strategy works best for their
employees and what sort of culture-specific adaptation might be required. Few cross-cultural
“universals” exist when it comes to motivation.
I. Western Motivation Concepts Applied to Other Cultures
Content-based theories are outlooks that focus on the substance of employees’ thinking as the
II. Content-Based Theories
A. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
1. Description of the model
Maslow claimed that we are all motivated by five distinct needs organized in
pyramid-like structure in our heads and we pursue them sequentially. At the bottom
of the pyramid are the most basic, physiological needs such as food and shelter. Once
2. Cross-cultural applicability
We might expect that the motivation to pursue higher-order needs (such as self-
actualization) could be strongest in developed countries since, by definition, people
are wealthier and have higher standards of living. Those in developing countries have
greater challenges with lower-order survival needs more prominent in their lives.
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Research on Maslow’s ideas is clear: needs do not operate in a fixed hierarchy across
borders. In essence, the hierarchy is a philosophy that may reflect American values.
B. Herzberg’s two-factor theory
1. Description of the model
Herzberg suggested that without a minimum level of so called ‘hygiene’ factors, such
as good pay and working conditions, employees will be unhappy and unmotivated. If
2. Cross-cultural applicability
While Herzberg’s ideas are interesting and thought-provoking, research has produced
mixed results. Different studies suggest that Herzberg’s ideas do not fit other cultures
precisely and may again work best in an American context. It is this context in which
efforts to increase individual opportunity and performance are often attractive to
employees.
Herzberg’s motivators may also face some cultural impediments in developing
countries such as Indonesia, India, and Pakistan. These countries tend to be
collectivist, high in uncertainty avoidance and power distance, and low in
masculinity. Workers who are more collective in their views may also react poorly to
efforts aimed at enriching jobs on an individual basis. When feminine values hold
is likely to foster deeper motivation and commitment more quickly in places where
individualistic and masculine values are strong (e.g., U.S.). It may be better to
improve working conditions and relations with workers if managers want to create a
motivated and committed workforce in places where collectivism (e.g., Japan) or
feminine values tend to hold sway (e.g., Sweden).
C. Process-based theories
1. Reinforcement theory: connecting behavior and rewards
The central idea behind reinforcement theory is that the best way to motivate is to
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2. Culture, context, and reinforcement techniques
Managers need to know what employees value to use positive reinforcement
effectively. Culture and societal context makes this more challenging than it seems on
the surface. Culture may also affect how employees interpret feedback they receive
about their performance. While employees react more favorably to positive feedback
prized above a short-term indicator of performance.
Managers must scale a formidable learning curve to understand what works best in a
particular cultural context. This does not mean that American managers must avoid
Western approaches to reinforcement. What it does mean is that, to be accepted by
employees, reinforcement approaches be modified to fit local sensibilities.
D. Expectancy theory: tying goals to rewards
The expectancy approach assumes that three factors determine employee effort in a given
situation:
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1. Cultural assumptions of expectancy theory
Expectancy theory makes some now-familiar cultural assumptions, emphasizing
individualistic and masculine values, such as focus on tasks rather than on
relationships. It also assumes that individual workers are rational and control their
Because rewards must be valued to produce motivation, expectancy theory suggests
that the rewards provided should reflect cultural values. In one study American
managers felt that bonuses should be closely connected to performance. This fits the
theory’s assumption that people are achievement-oriented and can tolerate risk. But
E. Equity theory: you should get what you deserve
Equity theory proposes that if employees perceive that they have been treated unjustly,
they are motivated to restore a sense of fairness. This happens when employees compare
1. Applying equity concepts across cultures
How different cultures define, interpret, and assess fairness can vary considerably,
often in ways that are not well understood. Moreover, national culture is not the only
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International managers would be wise to consider the impact of cultural values
regarding equity concepts. Workers in cultures that highly value individualism may
still be more motivated by equity and deservingness than employees elsewhere. In
such cultures, individual performance (inputs) is important and should be rewarded
accordingly based on deservingness (outcomes). In collectivist cultures there may be
more openness to seeing rewards distributed equally, regardless of performance, to
preserve group harmony and cohesiveness.
The link between culture and equity-based rewards is both complex and evolving.
Some studies suggest that employees in collectivistic cultures are less likely to apply
equity concepts when distributing rewards than employees in individualistic cultures.
Other experts, however, suggest a more nuanced view, pointing out that research has
found that employees in collectivistic cultures may be more likely to use equity
norms when rewarding efforts to promote group cohesiveness (a more collective
outcome/value). Still other studies suggest that in-group versus out-group differences
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judging fairness in different parts of the world. There may be fewer differences than
we think across cultures when it comes to preferences for equity or equality norms.
Instead, culture may have a bigger impact on what employees consider to be relevant
What do these complex findings on an equity approach to motivation mean for
international managers? Managers should:
a. think through how their own cultural values might affect their use of equity
rules in doling out rewards; and
III. Conclusions About Motivation Across Cultures
International managers would be well-served to take culture and related factors into account
when designing and implementing motivation strategies for use abroad. This is a challenge,
A. Describe the motivation situation – How does the manager view the motivation issue(s)?
What perspectives do subordinates have? Purpose: to discover whether different
perspectives exist and whether they create conflict.
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D. Generate culturally synergistic alternatives – Once cultural assumptions have been
identified the next challenge is to develop motivation strategies that blend elements of the
cultures involved or even go beyond them.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter presents the challenge of understanding what motivates employees and management
across cultural boundaries. There are relatively few universal approaches when it comes to
motivation. Even if the underlying principles used are the same, how they are framed and
presented needs to reflect local values to be effective, at least to an extent. Something as
“simple” as feedback designed to reinforce good performance can have different effects when
applied elsewhere.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What problems might a manager face when using the various motivations approaches
discussed in this chapter?
• Western approaches to motivation typically reflect person-focused and goal-
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2. What specific concerns might come up if managers were trying to motivate
employees from Spain, from Indonesia, or from Australia?
• Locate these three countries on Hofstede’s Culture Maps since motivation is
3. What approaches should you consider in order to construct a culturally synergistic
approach to motivation? And, what difficulties might you encounter in trying to
implement those steps?
• Recommended Approaches: See A – E under II. Conclusions About
Motivation Across Cultures
ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES
DEVELOPING YOU INTERNATIONAL CAREER – How Are Your Cross-Cultural
Motivation Skills?
BOXED FEATURES
CULTURE CLASH – Money Drives Russian Women Working for Mary Kay and Avon
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Table 4.1 – Partner or Boss? How Employees in European Countries view Their Supervisors