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Chapter 9
Foundations of Group Behavior
Chapter Overview
The text thus far has been dealing with individual behavior. Another important component
of OB is group behavior. This chapter and the next will focus on how groups work and how
to create effective teams.
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Define group and differentiate between types of groups.
3. Show how role requirements change in different situations.
5. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision-making.
Suggested Lecture Outline
I. INTRODUCTION
A. While understanding individual behavior is important, most work takes place in
group settings.
B. It is important for an effective manager to understand how people work in groups,
and how to create effective teams.
II. DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING GROUPS
A. Types of Groups. There are many different types of groups.
Being able to accurately define and classify the groups may
help explain their behavior.
1. Group: two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come
together to achieve particular objectives.
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1) In these groups, acceptable behaviors are stipulated by, and directed
toward, organizational goals.
3) Task Groups: also organizationally determined, these groups are
comprised of people working together to complete a job task.
a) This group’s boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical
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b) All command groups are task groups, but the reverse need not be
true.
b. Informal Groups: alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined.
1) Informal groups are natural formations in the work environment that
appear in response to the need for social contact.
2) Interest Group: people may affiliate to attain in a specific objective of
3) Friendship Groups: groups that form because the individual members
have one or more common characteristics.
a) These social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work
situation, can be based on a similar demographic or sports/hobby
interest.
B. Group Joining Behavior.
3. Exhibit 9-1 provides some of the most popular reasons
people give for joining groups.
III. STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
A. Groups generally pass through a standardized sequence of five developmental
stages in their evolution.
1. While not all groups follow this pattern, it’s a useful
framework for understanding group development.
B. The Five-Stage Model.
1. These progressive steps characterize the growth of groups.
a. Forming. Characterized by a great deal of uncertainty
about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership.
1) Members experiment to determine which behaviors are acceptable.
b. Storming. This stage is full of intragroup conflict as members resist the
constraints the group imposes upon them and determine leadership.
c. Norming. The group is cohesive and develops close relationships with a
strong sense of group identity and camaraderie.
d. Performing. Finally, group energy moves toward performing their assigned
task.
e. Adjourning. While permanent groups may not ever make it to this stage,
temporary groups do.
Exhibit 9.1
Exhibit 9.2
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1) In this stage, the group prepares to disband and perhaps join other
groups.
2. Many interpreters of the five-stage model have assumed a
group becomes more effective as it progresses through the
first four stages.
a. Although this may be generally true, what makes a group effective is actually
more complex.
b. Groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates.
1) Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high
performance and improve over time.
2) Those with less sense of purpose actually see their performance worsen
c. Nor do groups always proceed clearly from one stage to the next.
1) Storming and performing can occur simultaneously.
3. An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines.
a. Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to follow the usual five
stage model. Instead, they follow the punctuated-equilibrium model.
b. Their first meeting sets the groups direction, this first phase of group
activity is one of inertia.
IV. GROUP PROPERTIES: ROLES, NORMS, STATUS, SIZE, AND COHESIVENESS
A. In order to understand workgroups, it is important that we
realize that the behavior of the members is shaped by the
properties of the workgroups.
1. Those workgroup properties allow us to explain and predict a large portion of
individual behavior within the group as well as the performance of the group
itself.
B. Group Property 1: Roles.
1. Roles are the set of expected behavior patterns attributed
to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
a. Typically, people are required to play a number of
diverse roles, both on and off the job, which makes the understanding of role
behavior more difficult.
b. There are different ways to examine roles:
1) Role Perception.
a) The view of how a person is supposed to act in a given situation.
2) Role Expectations.
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3) Role Conflict.
a) When multiple role expectations are incompatible, individuals
experience conflict.
C. Group Property 2: Norms.
by the group’s members.
2. When accepted by the group’s members, norms act as a powerful means of
3. The Hawthorne Studies. The importance of norms in
influencing worker behavior grew out of a series of studies
undertaken at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne
Works in Chicago from 1924 through 1932.
a. The initial study determined that increases in productivity were caused by
b. In a follow-on study, dealing with pay–for-performance, researchers
discovered that workers do not maximize individual economic rewards, but
as a group, establish and maintain the norm of a “proper day’s work” level of
output.
1) This also included strongly enforced norms of not creating too much or
4. Conformity. In order to be accepted, an individual will
often change his or her behavior or opinion to conform to
the group.
a. Reference Groups.
2) These are groups in which a person is aware of other members; defines
himself or herself as a member, (or would like to be a member); and
feels that the group members are significant to him or her.
b. Asch Studies.
1) In the set of classic studies by Solomon Asch, effects
of conformity were demonstrated.
2) When the subjects of the experiment were shown
lines of unequal length in the presence of a group who claimed that the
5. Deviant Workplace Behavior (also called
Counterproductive Behavior or Employee Withdrawal).
Exhibit 9.4
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3) Characteristics: an individual’s personal traits. When a group positively
3. Status and Norms.
a. High status members of groups often have more
freedom to deviate from norms than do low status
4. Status and Group Interaction.
a. The interactions among members of a group are influenced by status.
b. High status people tend to be more assertive, while lower status members
are more likely to be less active participants in discussions.
c. The situation may result in a lower diversity of ideas and creativity.
E. Group Property 4: Size.
1. Group size does affect the group’s overall behavior, but it is
2. Smaller groups complete tasks faster and their individuals perform better, but
larger groups consistently do better in problem solving.
3. Group size affects:
a. Social Loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend
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1) As demonstrated by Max Ringlemann, a group’s effort is not equal to the
sum of the efforts of individuals within that group.
3) Causes of Social Loafing.
a) There are a number of possible causes of social loafing.
b) Equity theory would indicate that when an individual and the group
believes that he or she is working harder than the other group
members, that individual will reduce effort to match that of the
group.
4) Social loafing appears to have a Western bias. It is consistent with
5) Preventing Social Loafing. While there is no magic bullet, these four
suggestions will help minimize its effect:
a) Set group goals so that the group had a common purpose.
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d) Select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in
groups.
F. Group Property 5: Cohesiveness.
1. Cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted
to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
2. Cohesiveness is important because it is been found to be related to the group’s
productivity.
4. Cohesiveness and Productivity.
a. Performance-related norms established by the group are the key
5. Encouraging Cohesiveness.
a. The following methods may increase group
cohesiveness:
1) Decrease the size of the group.
3) Increase the time members spend together.
4) Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of obtaining
membership in that group.
5) Stimulate competition with other groups.
7) Physically isolate the group.
G. Group Property 6: Diversity.
1. Diversity is the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or
different from, one another.
2. A great deal of research is being done on how diversity influences group
3. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a
group’s tenure, which often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates.
4. Research shows that teams in which the members’ values or opinions differ tend
5. Culturally and demographically diverse groups may perform better over time –
if they can get over their initial conflicts.
a. Performance-related norms established by the group are the key
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c. However, a cohesive group with low performance
norms will experience low productivity.
V. GROUP DECISION-MAKING
A. Groups versus the Individual.
2. To understand the group decision-making, we must examine its strengths and
weaknesses.
B. Strengths of Group Decision-Making.
1. The use of groups in decision-making provides the following
benefits:
2. Weaknesses of Group Decision-Making:
a. Typically, it takes more time to reach a solution.
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency.
a. Effectiveness.
1) Whether or not group decisions are more effective
than are those of an individual depends on the criteria used for defining
effectiveness.
2) Accuracy: group decisions are generally more accurate than that of the
3) Speed: individual decision-making is much faster than group decision-
making.
5) Degree of acceptance: group decisions tend to be more readily accepted
than are those of an individual.
b. Efficiency.
1) Groups are far less efficient than are individual decision-makers.
2) In deciding whether to use a group, consideration should be given to
assessing whether increases in effectiveness more than offset the
reductions in efficiency.
C. Groupthink and Groupshift.
1. These two phenomena of group decision-making have the potential to affect
2. Groupthink:
a. This occurs when group members become so enamored
of seeking concurrence with the norm that the desire for
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c. Symptoms of Groupthink.
1) Group members rationalize away any resistance to the assumptions
2) Members apply direct pressures on those who momentarily express
doubts about any of the group’s shared views or who question the
validity of arguments supporting the alternative favored by the
majority.
3) Members who have doubts or hold differing points of view keep silent
4) The illusion of unanimity: unless a group member speaks out, his or her
silence is taken as concurrence.
5) Groupthink appears closely aligned with the conclusions Asch drew in
his experiments with a lone dissenter.
a) Individuals who hold a position different from that of the dominant
majority are under pressure to suppress, withhold, or modify their
true feelings and beliefs.
b) As members of a group, we find it more pleasant to be in
agreement—to be a positive part of the group—
d. Minimizing Groupthink.
1) First, they can monitor group size.
a) People grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increases,
2) Managers should also encourage group leaders to play an impartial
role.
3) In addition, managers should appoint one group member to play the
role of devil’s advocate; this member’s role is to overtly challenge the
majority position and offer divergent perspectives.
4) Still another suggestion is to use exercises that stimulate active
discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group and
5) Requiring members to first focus on the negatives of an alternative
3. Group Shift or Group Polarization.
a. There are differences between group decisions and the
individual decisions of group members.
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1) Sometimes group decisions are more conservative.
2) More often, they lean toward greater risk. What appears to happen in
3) Conservatives become more cautious, and more aggressive types take
on more risk.
b. The group discussion tends to exaggerate the initial position of the group.
c. We can view group polarization as a special case of groupthink.
1) The group’s decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm that
develops during discussion.
2) Whether the shift in the group’s decision is toward greater caution or
more risk depends on the dominant pre-discussion norm.
d. The shift toward risk has generated several explanations.
1) It’s been argued, for instance, that discussion makes the members more
comfortable with each other and, thus, more bold and daring.
2) Another argument is that the group diffuses responsibility.
a) Group decisions free any single member from accountability for the
3) People on the fringes of political or social movements take on more and
4) So how should you use the findings on groupshift?
a) Recognize that group decisions exaggerate the initial position of the
individual members,
b) Recognize that the shift has been shown more often to be toward
greater risk, and
D. Group Decision-Making Techniques.
1. One of the most common forms that groups take when
making decisions is that of interacting groups.
2. The techniques presented below are designed to reduce
many of the problems inherent in the traditional interacting group.
1) It can overcome the pressures for conformity that dampen creativity by
encouraging any and all alternatives while withholding criticism.
2) This somewhat ineffective technique does not lead to a solution, and
may in fact lead to fewer creative alternatives than an individual could
1) This technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication
during the decision-making process.
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a) This is why it is referred to as a “nominal” (in name only) group
technique.
3) A problem is presented and the following steps take place.
a) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem
without discussing it in the group.
b) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until
all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is
allowed until all ideas have been recorded.
4) The use of NGT does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use
this technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups.
V. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
A. Performance. A number of group properties show a relationship
to performance.
2. When group norms support high output, managers can expect individual
3. Group norms that support antisocial behavior increase the likelihood that
individuals will engage in deviant workplace activities.
5. Group size has an impact on both group effectiveness and efficiency.
6. Group cohesiveness can play an important part in influencing a group’s level of
productivity if the group has high performance-related norms.
B. Satisfaction
2. Role conflict is associated with job-induced tension and job dissatisfaction.
3. Most people prefer to communicate with others at their own status level or a
higher one rather than with those below them.
4. The group size–satisfaction relationship is what we would intuitively expect:
a. Larger groups are associated with lower satisfaction.
b. As size increases, opportunities for participation and social interaction
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VI. KEEP IN MIND
A. Group norms, roles, and identities have powerful affects on
individual behavior.
making.
VII. SUMMARY
Discussion Questions
1. What is the difference between formal and informal groups? Give an example of
each.
2. Describe the five-stage model of group development and the caveats associated with
its use.
3. How can group cohesiveness be increased? Give specific recommendations.
4. Describe the three sources of status.
5. Why does social loafing occur?
6. List the strengths and weaknesses of group decision-making.
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Answer: Strengths of group decision-making: (1) generates information and
7. Compare and contrast brainstorming and NGT. Ensure you describe both
techniques fully in your answer.
Answer: Brainstorming. The technique designed to generate a list of creative
alternatives. A problem is presented and everyone provides oral input on the
solution simultaneously. No feedback or discussion is allowed until all of the inputs
1) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem without
discussing it in the group.
2) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until all
ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is allowed until
all ideas have been recorded.
The use of NGT does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use this
technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups.
Exercises
1. Self-analysis. Consider the last group that you were in that was required to make a
decision. What type of group was it? What types of decision-making techniques
were used? How is your input to the group affected by the type of group and
decision-making technique?
2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, locate a group decision-making
3. Teamwork. In this exercise instructor will break the class up into groups of various
sizes, some large (12+ members) and some small (4-7 members) and leaving three
individuals by themselves. The instructor will provide three datasheets on a
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make your decision. The three individuals will also make this decision, each on their
own, and keep track of the time it takes them.
As a class, compare the quality of the results and the time it took to achieve them,
based on group size and decision-making technique. What are your findings?
4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project). Write a one-page paper that
Suggested Assignment
1. Group Membership Analysis. List out all of the groups that you belong to and
categorize each group based on the group subcategories given in the text. Count up
what subcategory was group membership most frequently identified and in which
was membership least frequently identified? What was the average number of
groups to which members of the class belonged?
2. Status Symbols. Examine an organization with which you are familiar and pay
particular attention to the use of status symbols by those in high status positions.
3. Identifying Norms. As college students to have been exposed to a continuing series
of norms. From elementary school on, you have learned what is considered to be
proper behavior in the classroom. As a class (or in small groups), brainstorm and
identify these unwritten rules of classroom behavior. How many norms were there?
How many of these norms were you consciously aware of prior to listing them?