Chapter Four: Perceptions and Attributions
Chapter Synopsis
This chapter introduces the variables that influence individual behavior/performance, and it focuses
on five major ones: demographic factors, abilities and skills, perception, attitudes, and personality.
The chapter begins with a discussion of the perceptual process and explains why it is difficult to
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Describe the different stages of the perception process.
2. Discuss the process of perceptual grouping.
3. Compare the six potential inaccuracies that can result from perceptual grouping.
Chapter 04 – Perceptions and Attributions
Key Terms
perception—The process by which an individual gives meaning to environmental stimuli. It
involves observing, selecting, and interpreting information.
Pygmalion effect—A self-fulfilling prophecy that causes a person to behave in a positive manner to
meet expectations.
halo effect—In perception it occurs when a person allows one important factor or characteristic to
bias his or her view, impression, or evaluation.
similar-to-me errors—Using yourself as a benchmark against which others are judged.
attribution theory—A process by which individuals attempt to explain the reasons for events.
distinctiveness—In attribution theory the degree to which a person behaves similarly in different
situations.
consistency—In attribution theory the degree to which a person engages in the same behaviors at
different times.
consensus—In attribution theory the degree to which other people are engaging in the same
behavior.
internal attribution—Tendency to assume that events are caused by factors within a person’s
control.
Lecture Outline
The Chapter outline is organized to correspond with the PowerPoint slides.
The chapter title slide may be used as a background to introduce the class.
Learning objectives
Review the chapter learning objectives. These will be reviewed on the last slide of the
pack.
Perception (1 of 2)
objective reality, we are in fact describing our subjective reactions to that reality.
Perception (2 of 2)
Individuals are constantly bombarded by environmental stimuli that impact their senses
of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Exactly which stimuli a person focuses on is
determined by what he or she chooses to pay attention to at a particular moment.
The Perceptual Process
There is always the possibility that a person’s perception is inaccurate. Misinterpreting
stimuli can and often does result in perceptual errors. The research literature on
interviewing suggests that interviewers rate candidates who are similar to themselves in
first impression errors based on the first few minutes of an interview. Unfortunately,
making first impression errors can eliminate many good job candidates, which is
detrimental to a firm.
Individuals try to make sense of environmental stimuli by observation, selection, and
translation.
Exhibit 4.1 the Perceptual Process: An Individual Interpretation
Exhibit 4.1 illustrates the basic framework and elements of perception operating as a
cognitive process. Each person makes personal/individual choices and responds
differently. Learning about perceptual interpretation helps managers understand why
individual differences must be considered at work. People see the world around them in
their own unique way and behave and respond according to their interpretation.
Exhibit 4.1 The Perceptual Gap between Supervisor and Subordinates
To a considerable extent, people interpret the behavior of others in the context in which
they find themselves. A classic study reported by Rensis Likert clearly illustrates this.
Each group viewed the type of recognition being given at a different level. The
subordinates in most cases reported that very little recognition was provided by their
supervisors and that rewards were provided infrequently. The superiors, on the other
hand, saw themselves as giving a wide variety of rewards for good performance. The
two groups were looking at the same objective reality and very honestly reaching quite
different conclusions. The situation was the same, but their interpretations of the
situation were markedly different.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Perceptions do influence reality. This is the notion of what is called the self-fulfilling
individual to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations. These expectations
can be positive or negative. The positive case is called the Pygmalion effect.
Researchers have also found that the self-fulfilling prophecy can be negative—low
expectations of success lead to poor performance. This is known as the Golem effect.
The Pygmalion and Golem effects follow a three stage process:
Supervisor has expectations
Subordinates match their expectations to supervisor
Subordinate performance matches expectation
PPT has image from the OB Matters element in the chapter
Perceptual Grouping
Once relevant stimuli are selected, individuals categorize and group them so that they
will make sense. The brain receives stimuli and seeks to recognize common patterns.
This is a way of organizing sensations and applies to perceptions of people, objects, or
events.
•The law of nearness—all other things being equal, stimuli that are near each other tend
to be grouped together.
overall form.
backgrounds. Individuals try to make sense of environmental stimuli by observation,
selection, and translation.
EXHIBIT 4.3 Four Different Types of Perceptual Grouping
Instructors may wish to use Exhibit 4.3 to further explain the concepts of perceptual
grouping
Schemas
Managers often use schemas or perceptual frameworks to think about a problem or
prepare for a situation. The schema allows a person the chance to think and prepare
before acting.
Perceiving, Grouping, and Creating Schemas
Unfortunately, the process of creating schemas is open to the potential for inaccuracies
and distortions, such as prejudice resulting from inaccurate stereotyping; selective
attention; the halo effect; similar-to-me errors; and others.
Instructors may wish to use the Exhibit 4.4 to expand on potential sources of perceptual
errors and how they decrease accuracy.
Following slides provide detail on the listed factors.
Stereotyping and prejudice are further discussed on subsequent slides.
Stereotyping
Stereotyping is a translation step in the perceptual process employed to assist
individuals in dealing with massive information-processing demands. It represents a
label or name. For example, a recent study found that work associated with names
stereotypically connected with a particular race was evaluated differently from work
Stereotyping and Prejudice (1 of3)
A prejudice is a stereotype that refuses to change when presented with information
indicating the stereotype is inaccurate. Stereotypes can be helpful; prejudice is never
helpful. An extreme form of prejudice is scapegoating (blaming a person or a group for
the actions of others or for conditions not of their making). Thus, scapegoating is a type
of displaced aggression in which hostilities triggered by frustration are redirected at safe
targets.
Stereotyping and Prejudice (2 of 3)
Two Sources of Prejudice
At times, the development of prejudice can be traced to direct experiences with
members of the rejected group. An employee who is repeatedly belittled and
conforms to norms of a group she belongs to.
Stereotyping and Prejudice (3 of 3)
Stereotyping can be a useful process in that it can greatly increase our efficiency in
making sense out of our environment. Nonetheless, stereotyping can and does lead to
underutilization of human resources, they contribute to ineffectiveness and inefficiency.
Stereotyping Cautions
Stereotypes are rarely accurate when applied to a specific individual.
Individuals must challenge their assumptions to increase accuracy
Selective and Divided Attention
Selective attention refers to the fact that people give some messages priority and put
narrowing in the information channel linking the senses to perception. When one
message enters the bottleneck zone, it seems to prevent others from passing through.
This may be why it is difficult to listen to two or more colleagues talking at once.
Divided attention occurs when a person must divide his or her mental efforts among
tasks, each of which requires some amount of attention (multitasking). Research
suggests that when individuals are distracted by multiple demands, they will be more
likely to engage in stereotypes. Managers learn that some stimuli (e.g., employees)
performers or are more respected capture the manager’s attention more quickly. An
employee who keeps making a request for a transfer also receives more attention. This is
because of the repetition of the request. Obviously, the potential for error in selecting
which stimuli to attend to is always present.
Halo Effect (1 of 2)
The halo effect occurs when a person (e.g., manager) allows one important or noticeable
characteristic of another person to bias the evaluation, perception, or impression of that
person. An employee who is always at work before everyone else arrives or after they
leave may be assumed to be productive and hard working. On the other hand, an
employee with multiple body piercings may be considered wild and not reliable. Both of
these judgments made by a manager utilize the halo effect and may be erroneous.
Halo Effect (2 of 2)
Research has found an individual’s physical attractiveness and looks can significantly
promotion for women in nonmanagerial positions. However, attractive women in
management received lower performance reviews and pay raises, as well as a decreased
number of promotion opportunities. Both of these outcomes stem from the halo effect.
Similar-to-Me Errors
frequently use themselves as benchmarks in perceiving others. This can give rise to
similar-to–me errors. One’s own characteristics may affect the characteristics identified
as present or lacking in others. Research suggests that knowing oneself well makes it
easier to see others accurately. Also, persons who accept themselves are more likely to
see the favorable aspects of other people. Basically, these conclusions suggest that if
manager who is a perfectionist tends to look for perfection in subordinates, while a
manager who is quick in responding to technical requirements looks for this ability in
subordinates. This may not be appropriate to the situation.
Situational Factors
The press of time, the attitudes of the people a manager is working with, and other
situational factors all influence perceptual accuracy. If a manager is pressed for time and
has to immediately fill an order, then her perceptions will be influenced by these time
constraints. The press of time literally will force the manager to overlook some details,
to rush certain activities, and to ignore certain stimuli such as requests from other
managers or from superiors.
Needs and Perceptions
Perceptions are influenced significantly by needs and desires. In other words, the
employee, the manager, the vice president, and the director see what they want to see.
Attribution Theory (1 of 6)
One approach that provides a basis for understanding the relationship between
perception and behavior is attribution theory. Attribution theory attempts to explain the
why of behavior as based on people’s attributions of causes to events that happen to
them. Attribution theory views the process by which individuals interpret events around
them as being caused by (attributed to) a relatively stable portion of their environment.
Attribution Theory (2 of 6)
Exhibit 4.5 The attribution Process
Exhibit 4.5 displays the attribution process. According to attribution theory, it is the
behavior. More specifically, individuals attempt to analyze why certain events have
occurred, and the results of that analysis influence their behavior in the future.
Attribution Theory (3 of 6)
The attribution process can be important in understanding the behavior of others. The
behavior of others can be examined on the basis of its distinctiveness, consistency, and
consensus. Distinctiveness is the degree to which a person behaves similarly in different
situations. Consistency is the degree to which a person engages in the same behaviors at
different times. Consensus is the degree to which other people are engaging in the same
behavior. Knowing the extent to which a person’s behavior exhibits these qualities can
be very useful in helping us better understand that behavior.
Attribution Theory (4 of 6)
Exhibit 4.6 casts consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus in the form of questions,
the answers to which can lead us to some conclusions about the behavior in question.
Attribution Theory (5 of 6)
Not all attributions, of course, are correct. Another important contribution made by
attribution theory is the identification of systematic errors or biases that distort
behavior of others.
Another frequent error is the self-serving bias. This is reflected in the tendency people
have to take credit for successful work and deny responsibility for poor work. The self-
serving bias leads us to conclude that when we succeed it is a result of our outstanding
efforts, while when we fail it is because of factors beyond our control.
Attribution Theory (6 of 6)
The managerial implications of an attributional approach to understanding work
behavior are important. To influence employee behavior, the manager must understand
the attributions employees make. Further, a manager must be aware that his own
attributions may be different from employees’. For example, if a manager perceives
employees’ poor performance to be the result of lack of effort, she may attempt to
increase motivation levels. On the other hand, if employees perceive performance
to have a positive effect on employee behavior.
Impression Management (1 of 3)
Through actions, body language, and manner of speaking, individuals attempt to
influence the perceptions that others have of them. The attempt to influence others’
perceptions of oneself has been called impression management. Managers manage
wide. Nearly everybody practices impression management.
Impression Mangement (2 of 3)
Goffman proposed that impression management is a kind of theatrical process. When a
person is in the presence of others, there is a reason to mobilize resources, style, and
creativity to make a positive impression. The process occurs at first contact, but also
over the course of a long-term relationship. Individuals (managers and nonmanagers)
engage in impression management for numerous reasons. First, to interact socially,
impression management allows the person to communicate a desired identity. Once the
identity is established, the individual tries to remain congruent with the impression—or
face cognitive dissonance. The audience (manager, colleagues, stakeholders) respects
the desired identity and attempts to comply with the impression being conveyed. Some
situations (e.g., performance feedback meeting, a meeting to discuss the theft of
public always engage in impression management.
Impression Management (3 of 3)
Impression Management Tactics
Organizational researchers have proposed various impression management frameworks.
The one framework that has been carefully examined empirically is offered by Jones
and Pittman. According to Jones and Pittman, individuals engage in five impression
management tactics: 1. Ingratiation: They seek to be viewed positively by flattering
others or offering to do favors for them. 2. Self-promotion: They tout their abilities and
threatening.
EXHIBIT 4.7 What Job Applicants Say to Generate a Positive Impression of
Themselves
Exhibit 4.7 lists some popular impression management tactics used by job candidates.
Justifications – Accepting some responsibility, but denying the negative implications
Excuses – Designating responsibility for one’s actions
In Review, Can You…
Review progress against objectives.
Summary of Key Points
Perception is a process that involves selection, organization, and interpretation of environmental
factors, from shapes, to people, and other stimuli. Through the perceptual process, individuals
attempt to make sense of the stimuli they observe.
Once stimuli are selected, they are categorized into groups according to a number of laws: nearness,
similarity, closure, simplicity, and figure ground. The grouping makes the interpretation and sense-
making process easier. It doesn’t, however, eliminate inaccuracies or distortions.
Stereotyping can help a person organize perceptions. However, it contributes to prejudice, bias, or
discrimination; it can be problematic.
Review and Discussion Questions
1. Think back to a teacher, manager, or coach who believed in your ability and potential. To
what degree did this Pygmalion effect impact your behavior and performance?
Ans: Student answers will vary but should support or specifically indicate why the self-fulfilling
2. Assume you have a team leader who always expects the worst from team members. To what
degree can this Golem effect negatively impact team performance?
Ans: The Golem effect is a self-fulfilling prophecy that results in something negative. To decrease
3. Why are the perceptions of your skills and abilities typically different from the perceptions
that other have of your skills and abilities?
Ans: According to attribution theory, this can be due to a fundamental attribution error and/or a self-
serving bias. A fundamental attribution error is the tendency to under-estimate the importance of
4. What types of schemas do managers use to make better sense of information at work?
Ans: Managers use schemas to make better sense of information, thereby reducing perceptual
inaccuracies. For instance, with a person-based schema, managers use a profile to classify employees
5. Give an example of a time when someone used a stereotype to describe you or something you
did. Was the stereotype accurate? If not, explain why it wasn’t accurate.
Ans: Student examples will vary. The accuracy of stereotypes may be addressed as follows.
Stereotyping can result in inaccuracies and distortions because stereotypes are frequently based on
6. In what ways does “information overload” (e.g., text messages, e-mails, search engine
results, etc.) in today’s modern work environment affect employees’ attention? Does this
divided attention impact their job performance? Explain.
Ans: Student answers will vary but may focus on selective and divided attention and point out that
7. Describe an instance at work when you allowed a person’s attractiveness or physical
appearance to influence how you interacted with that person.
Ans: student answers will vary.
8. When a normally high-performing employee makes a mistake or has a bad day, why should
his/her manager not commit a fundamental attribution error when trying to understand the
cause of the employee’s behavior?
9. Which impression management tactics, if any, have you used while interviewing for jobs? In
what way did these tactics influence the interviewer?
Ans: While student answers will vary, most will focus on self-promotion.
10. As an interviewer, what steps can you take to decrease the influence of impression
management tactics that are commonly used by interviewees?
Ans: According to Jones and Pitman, individuals engage in impression management for the
following reasons:
Ingratiation: they want to be viewed positively by flattering others or offering to do favors for them.
EXERCISE 4.1: YOUR IMPRESSIONS OF OTHERS
1. Regarding the most favorable ratings, the instructor can ask students to add up the scores for
each category of persons on the first 5 characteristics: knowledgeable, intelligent, sensitive,
open and conscientious. The instructor can then build a discussion around which person
2. Once the most and least favorable scores are calculated (see #1 above), the instructor can ask
students to look for patterns of stereotyping. For example, a student may provide very
3. The instructor can ask students directly about whether they’ve had previous experiences with
these categories of persons and how these past experiences have influenced their current
management style, philosophy or practices.
4. One additional descriptor per category could include the following:
a. Recent college graduate: Ambitious
b. Internal revenue service accountant: Intimidating
EXERCISE 4.2: APPLYING ATTRIBUTION THEORY
This exercise is designed to give students the opportunity to analyze the attributions they make about
an employee’s behavior. After they’ve answered the first six questions about what could be causing
Don’s behavior changes, the instructor can ask students to form into 6-8 person groups to discuss
whether these behavior changes are caused by internal or external factors. The students can be
directed to Exhibit 4.5 to guide them with this internal/external assessment. By doing this exercise,
CASE 4.1: THE HUMAN COST ASSOCIATED WITH OUR ELECTRONIC GADGETS
1. Think of the initial impressions you formed of Foxconn as you read the case. To what
degree did stereotyping influence your thoughts? How much did additional information
about the firm change your initial impressions?
Ans: While student responses will vary, students may indicate that their impression of the firm
2. While the manual labor of assembling electronics is challenging for Foxconn employees, the
workers may also face the emotional burden of being away from family and isolation from
the outside world. How might management recognize and help employees constructively
cope with these challenges and emotions?
3. How has Foxconn engaged in impression management? Have their efforts been successful?
Ans: The case suggests the company, as do most, engaged in impression management. The
Lecture Ideas
1. One way to encourage class discussion on the dynamics of attitude change is to have students
individually recall a time in their past when they substantially changed an attitude about a
certain issue or person. Have them consider and discuss the factors that brought about the
change.
2. Here are some quick creativity tests that test the ability to view a problem from many different
perspectives, which is a major creativity skill.
A. Complete the following sequence of letters: OTTFFSS.
The answer: ENT. (Each letter is the first letter of the sequence “one, two, three, four,
five,” etc.)
B. Two men played chess. One man won two games; the other won three. How is this
D. One way to boost student discussion concerning the barriers to accurate perception is to
have students think about other barriers beyond those cited in the test. For example, an
Expectations bias—People tend to perceive what they’re used to perceiving. For example,
in a classic study by Bruner and Postman in the 1940s, subjects were presented with a
3. Ask students to think about the most recent political campaign. What were the main issues?
When the pollsters and the politicians tried to gauge the response of the electorate, how did
they gather and present their data? You want to help students see that common ways of
Project and Class Speaker Ideas
1. To facilitate student understanding of the concept of personality, have them research several
personality inventories. Often, the staff in the student counseling office has information about
the various inventories and what they purport to show (e.g., Myers Briggs). Another approach
is to ask students to read a short story or to identify a recognizable movie character, and then
2. If a member of the psychology department has done research and/or consulting in creativity,
invite the faculty member to talk to your class about the emergence of the now-common belief
3. One way to illustrate to students that job satisfaction depends on different factors across
different people is to have students (as a homework assignment) write a brief profile of their
job satisfaction in a previous job situation. Their written reports should include:
A. An estimate of the level of their satisfaction (or dissatisfaction)
B. The reasons for that level focusing on the components of satisfaction presented in the
chapter (e.g., pay, promotion, supervisor, etc.); and
Term Paper Ideas
1. The Primary Influences on Individual Behavior: An Overview
2. (Past Personal Experience): An Attitude Change Profile
3. What Global Managers Need to Know About Stereotypes
4. How is the United States Coping with the Issues and Problems of Stereotyping?