Chapter Fifteen: Leadership
Chapter Synopsis
This chapter addresses the issue of leadership in organizations by presenting the major leadership
theories and discussing key leadership concepts. In the first section, the authors define leadership,
discuss its importance, and present an overarching leadership model.
Subsequent sections cover three types of leadership theories:
• Trait theories
In presenting each theory, the authors explain its underlying principles and offer a critical
assessment, focusing on the theory’s strengths and shortcomings. Tables and figures further
summarize and explain how the theories work.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Describe the concept of leadership
2. Discuss several traits that are associated with leaders
3. Summarize the two major behavior approaches to leadership
Chapter 15 – Leadership
Key Terms
leadership—Using influence in an organizational setting or situation, producing effects that are
meaningful and have a direct impact on accomplishing challenging goals.
employee-centered leader—Focuses on having people complete the work and believes in
delegating decision making and aiding employees in satisfying their needs by creating a supportive
work environment.
initiating structure—Refers to behavior in which the leader organizes and defines the relationships
in the group, tends to establish well-defined patterns and channels of communication, and spells out
ways of getting the job done.
task structure—A factor in the Fiedler contingency model that refers to how structured a job is with
regard to requirements, problem-solving alternatives, and feedback on how correctly the job has
been accomplished.
position power—A factor in the Fiedler contingency model that refers to the power inherent in the
leadership position.
Vroom-Jago leadership model—A leadership model that specifies which leadership decision-
making procedures will be most effective in each of several different situations.
decision quality—An important criterion in the Vroom-Jago model that refers to the degree to
which a decision impacts subordinates’ performance.
charismatic leader—The charismatic leader is one who creates an atmosphere of motivation based
on an emotional commitment and identity to his or her vision, philosophy, and style on the part of
followers.
transactional leader—Helps the follower identify what must be done to accomplish the desired
results (e.g.,better-quality output, more sales or services, reduced cost of production) and ensures
that employees have the resources needed to complete the job.
Chapter 15 – Leadership
Lecture Outline
The Chapter outline is organized to correspond with the PowerPoint slides.
The chapter title slide may be used as a background to introduce the class.
Learning objectives
Review the chapter learning objectives. These will be reviewed on the last slide of the pack.
Introduction
Leadership has been a topic of interest, speculation, and debate since the time of Plato. In
organizations around the world, from massive conglomerates to small custom fabrication shops,
the same lament emerges: Where are the leaders? Who are the best leaders? What are the
attributes of the best leaders? The measure of the effectiveness of leading that no one is tired of
leadership concepts and consider applications that provide value.
What is Leadership (1 of 3)
With so much interest in leadership, it might be assumed that everyone is in general agreement
about what constitutes leadership. Such is not the case.
Every leader must deal with three important variables: the people who are being led, the task
that the people are performing, and the environment in which the people and the task exist.
Because these three variables are different in every situation, what is expected and needed from
a leader will be different in every situation.
What is Leadership (2 of 3)
The fact that leaders and leadership situations differ has led to numerous leadership definitions.
Some definitions of leadership are based on leader characteristics, some on leader behaviors,
still others on outcomes or end results. A definition of leadership needs to be sufficiently broad
to accommodate different theories, research findings, and applications. We define leadership as
the process of influencing others to facilitate the attainment of organizationally relevant goals.
Note that as specified by this definition you do not have to be in a formal leadership position to
success as is that of the formal leader.
What is Leadership (3 of 3)
Differences in definitions, leadership expectations, and the three significant variables that are a
part of all leadership situations (people, task, environment) notwithstanding, there are some
leadership commonalities. For example, Warren Bennis, who has devoted decades to
researching leadership issues, concludes that virtually all leaders of effective groups share the
four characteristics shown on the slide.
Is Leadership Important? (1 of 2)
Empirical evidence of the magnitude of the effects of leadership on performance is modest.
Several reasons have been cited to explain these modest effects. First, those selected as leaders
are similar in background, experience, and qualifications. The similarity across selected
individuals reduces the range of characteristics exhibited by leaders. Second, leaders at even the
highest levels do not have unilateral control over resources. Major decisions require approval,
review, and the use of modifications suggested by others. Third, many factors cannot be
controlled by a leader. Labor markets, environmental factors, and policies are often outside a
how astute, insightful, and influential a leader may be.
Is Leadership Important? (2 of 2)
Manz and Sims have clearly pointed out a way of thinking that emphasizes the replacement of
“bosses” with teams of employees who serve as their own bosses. The concept has been labeled
variously as self-managing teams, empowerment teams, and autonomous work groups. The
teams described by Sims and Manz may not have bosses, but they do have leaders. As these
of performance. Team leaders sometimes emerge or are sometimes appointed. They can be
called coordinators, facilitators, or coaches. They exert influence from a position of respect or
expertise that is accepted by the other team members.
Trait Approaches (1 of 3)
Much of the early discussion and research on leadership focused on identifying intellectual,
emotional, physical, and other personal traits of effective leaders. This approach assumed that a
finite number of individual traits of effective leaders could be found. To a significant extent, the
personnel testing component of scientific management supported the trait theory of leadership.
In addition to being studied by testing, the traits of leaders have been examined by observation
of behavior in group situations, by choice of associates (voting), by nomination or rating by
observers, and by analysis of biographical data.
Trait Approaches (2 of 3)
Exhibit 15.1 summarizes a number of the most researched traits of leaders (traits found most
likely to characterize successful leaders). Some studies have reported that these traits contribute
to leadership success. However, leadership success is neither primarily nor completely a
function of these or other traits.
relationship. Third, patterns of effective behavior depend largely on the situation: Leadership
fails to provide insight into what the effective leader does on the job. Observations are needed
that describe the behavior of effective and ineffective leaders. Despite its shortcomings, the trait
approach is not completely invalid. Kirkpatrick and Locke found evidence that effective leaders
are different from other people.
Behavioral Approaches
In the 1940s, researchers began to explore the notion that how a person acts determines that
person’s leadership effectiveness. Instead of searching for traits, these researchers examined
leader behaviors and their impact on the performance and satisfaction of followers.
Through interviewing leaders and followers, researchers identified two distinct styles of
leadership, referred to as job-centered and employee-centered. The job-centered leader focuses
on completing the task and uses close supervision so that subordinates perform their tasks using
specified procedures.
Initiating Structure and Consideration (1 of 2)
One of the more significant leadership research programs that developed after World War II
was led by Edwin Fleishman and his associates at The Ohio State University. This important
research program yielded a two-factor theory of leadership. A series of studies isolated two
leadership factors, referred to as initiating structure and consideration.
Initiating structure designates behavior in which the leader organizes and defines the
relationships in the group, tends to establish well-defined patterns and channels of
communication, and spells out ways of getting the job done. The leader with a high initiating
structure tendency focuses on goals and results. Consideration involves behavior indicating
friendship, mutual trust, respect, warmth, and rapport between the leader and the followers. The
leader with a high consideration overview supports open communication and participation.
The original premise suggested by the Ohio State researchers was that a high degree of
motivation, and leader effectiveness. The OSU personal–behavioral theory has been criticized
for simplicity (e.g., only two dimensions of leadership), lack of generalizability, and reliance on
questionnaire responses to measure leadership effectiveness.
Traits and Behavioral Approaches
Both trait and behavioral approaches to leadership have helped us better understand the
dynamics of leadership situations. Trait approaches consider personal characteristics of the
leader that may be important in achieving success in a leadership role. There is no doubt that
certain characteristics may be helpful—even essential—in some situations. These same
characteristics, however, may be unimportant—even detrimental—in other situations. Similarly,
the behavioral approaches attempt to specify which kinds of leader behaviors are necessary for
effective leadership. And here again, there is no doubt that certain behaviors may be important
in some situations, but may be irrelevant or damaging in others. Initiating-structure behaviors
on the part of the leader, for example, may be critical to successful task completion in some
Situational Approaches (1 of 2)
When the search for the “best” set of traits or behaviors failed to discover an effective
leadership mix and style for all situations, situational theories of leadership evolved that suggest
leadership effectiveness is a function of various aspects of the leadership situation. A number of
situational approaches have been proposed and studied. We will examine several of the more
significant ones.
Scale(LPC), an instrument developed by Fiedler that assesses the degree of positive or negative
feelings held by a person toward someone with whom he or she least prefers to work. Low
scores on the LPC are thought to reflect a task-oriented, or controlling, structuring leadership
style. High scores are associated with a relationship-oriented, or passive, considerate leadership.
EXHIBIT 15.2 Summary of Fielder’s Variables & Styles
The varying degrees of favorableness and the corresponding appropriate leadership style are
shown in Exhibit 15.2.
Leadership Actions to Change Situations (1 of 2)
Fiedler is not particularly optimistic that leaders can be trained successfully to change their
preferred leadership style. Consequently, he sees changing the favorableness of the situation as
a better alternative. In doing this, the first step Fiedler recommends is to determine whether
change their leadership situations.
Actions to change the relationship and structure situations are displayed.
Leadership Actions to Change Situations (1 of 2)
Actions to change the position power situation include: Show subordinates who is boss by
exercising fully the authority you have
Make sure that information to the group gets channeled through you
Let subordinates participate in planning and decision-making
decision-making situations. Their approach assumed that no one single leadership style was
appropriate; rather, the leader must be flexible enough to change leadership styles to fit specific
situations.
Vroom-Jago Leadership Model (2 of 3)
In developing the model, Vroom and Yetton made these assumptions:
1. The model should be of value to managers in determining which leadership styles they
should use in various situations.
2. No single style is applicable to all situations.
3. The main focus should be the problem to be solved and the situation in which the problem
occurs.
4. The leadership style used in one situation should not constrain the styles used in other
situations.
5. Several social processes influence the amount of participation by subordinates in problem-
solving.
commitment refers to how important it is that the subordinates be committed to or accept the
decision in order that it may be successfully implemented.
Vroom-Jago Decision Styles (1 of 2)
The Vroom-Jago model suggests five leadership styles. The detail on the styles accompanies the
discussion of the exhibit on the following slide.
as group decisions. Five different leadership styles that fit individual and group situations are
available. Described in Exhibit 15.3 , these styles are categorized as follows: 1. Autocratic (A):
You (the leader) make the decision without input from your subordinates or you (the leader)
secure input from subordinates and then make the decision. 2. Consultative (C): Subordinates
have some input, but you make the decision. 3. Group (G): The group makes the decision; you
(as leader) are just another group member. 4. Delegated (D): You give exclusive responsibility
to subordinates.
certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision? 6. Do subordinates share the
organizational goals to be attained in solving this problem? 7. Is conflict among subordinates
over preferred solutions likely? 8. Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high–
quality decision? Each of these questions may be thought of as representing a dichotomy.
Path-Goal Leadership Model (1 of 2)
Like the other situational or contingency leadership approaches, the path–goal leadership model
attempts to predict leadership effectiveness in different situations. According to this model,
leaders are effective because of their positive impact on followers’ motivation, ability to
perform, and satisfaction. The theory is designated path–goal because it focuses on how the
leader influences the followers’ perceptions of work goals, self-development goals, and paths to
goal attainment. The foundation of path–goal theory is the expectancy motivation theory
discussed in Chapter 5. The early theoretical work on the path–goal theory proposed that
leaders will be effective by making rewards available to subordinates and by making those
rewards contingent on the subordinates’ accomplishment of specific goals. It is argued by some
that an important part of the leader’s job is to clarify for subordinates the kind of behavior most
likely to result in goal accomplishment. This activity is referred to as path clarification.
variables are the personal characteristics of subordinates and the environmental pressures and
demands with which subordinates must cope to accomplish work goals and derive satisfaction
EXHIBIT 15.7 Summary Comparison of Four Important Situational Models of Leadership
Based on mixed research results, a revised theoretical formation of the path–goal model has
been presented. House, in his revised framework, proposes that research points out the
complexity of leadership and a need for more categories of leadership behavior. House
emphasizes the significance of intrinsic motivation and empowerment initiated by leaders.
Exhibit 15.5 illustrates the characteristics of House’s revised path–goal framework.
Situational Leadership Theory (1 of 3)
Managers often complain that esoteric theories don’t help them do a better job on the
production line, in the office, or in a research and development lab. They want some-thing they
can apply and use. Hersey and Blanchard developed a situational leadership theory that has
definitely appealed to many managers. Managers in large firms and small businesses have used
the situational leadership theory (SLT)and enthusiastically endorse its value. The appeal of SLT
may be that its approach is intuitive and can be effectively summarized in a page. SLT’s
person has little need for direct supervision.
Situational Leadership Theory (2 of 3)
Hersey and Blanchard used the Ohio State studies to further develop four leadership styles
available to managers:
• Telling—the leader defines the roles needed to do the job and tells followers what, where,
how, and when to do the tasks.
followers.
Situational Leadership Theory (3 of 3)
By determining followers’ readiness levels through discussions, observation, field surveys, and
interviews, a manager can choose from among the four leadership styles. Exhibit 15.5 presents
characteristics of the SLT. Application of the model works as follows. Suppose a manager
determines that his recently hired followers are unsure of themselves and insecure about how to
considered dumb.
Comparing Situational Approaches (1 of 2)
Similarities between the situational leadership models include the following.
All focus on the dynamics of leadership.
All have stimulated research on leadership.
All remain controversial because of measurement problems, limited research testing, or
contradictory research results.
Comparing Situational Approaches (2 of 2)
The four situational leadership models have some similarities and some differences. They are
similar in that they (1) focus on the dynamics of leadership, (2) have stimulated research on
leadership, and (3) remain controversial because of measurement problems, limited research
testing, or contradictory research results. Exhibit 15.6 summarizes the themes of each model.
centers on task- and relationship-oriented tendencies and how these interact with task and
Emerging Perspectives of Leadership
A number of leadership concepts are attracting the interest of practitioners and organizational
researchers. Each of the concepts in this section has provided interesting, controversial, and
insightful analysis or debates about their value in improving the general understanding of how
leadership can effectively impact employees.
John F. Kennedy and Winston Churchill possessed an attractiveness that enabled them to make
a difference with citizens, employees, and followers. The leadership approach of such people is
referred to as charismatic leadership. Max Weber suggested that some leaders have a gift of
take on hero qualities gain charisma. The charismatic leader is one who creates an atmosphere
of motivation based on an emotional commitment to and identity with his or her vision,
philosophy, and style on the part of followers.
EXHIBIT 15.7 Behavioral Components of Charismatic and Noncharismatic Leaders
What behavioral dimensions distinguish charismatic leaders from noncharismatic leaders? In
the early work on charismatic leadership, explanations lacked specificity. Later empirical
studies have examined the specific behavior and attributes of charismatic leaders, such as the
ability to inspire, a dominating personality, vision, and communication ability. However, no
specific set of behaviors and attributes is universally accepted by researchers and practitioners.
A descriptive behavioral framework that builds upon empirical work has been offered. The
framework presented in Exhibit 15.8 assumes that charisma must be viewed as an attribution
made by followers within the work context. Many leaders, of course, are not charismatic. These
leaders exhibit behaviors similar to those described in Exhibit 15.8 as “noncharismatic.” This
does not necessarily mean, however, that they are ineffective.
expressing a shared vision of what the future could be. Through communication ability, the
visionary charismatic leader links followers’ needs and goals to job or organizational goals.
Linking followers with the organization’s direction, mission, and goals is easier if they’re
dissatisfied or unchallenged by the current situation. Visionary charismatic leaders have the
ability to see both the big picture and the opportunities the big picture presents.
Crisis-based charismatic leaders have an impact when the system must handle a situation for
which existing knowledge, resources, or procedures are not adequate. The crisis-produced
charismatic leader communicates clearly what actions need to be taken and what their
consequences will be.
Each of the leadership approaches discussed so far emphasizes the point that leadership is an
exchange process. Followers are rewarded by the leader when they accomplish agreed-upon
the leader has been referred to as transactional.
Transactional Leadership (2 of 3)
Exhibit 15.8 presents the transactional leadership roles. The leader helps the followers identify
what must be done to accomplish the desired results: for example, better-quality output, more
sales or services, reduced the cost of production. In helping the followers identify what must be
done, the transactional leader considers followers’ self-concept and esteem needs. The
transactional approach uses path–goal concepts as part of its framework and explanation.
Transactional leadership is not often found in organizational settings. One national sample of
between how hard they worked and how much pay they received. That is, the majority of
workers believed that good pay was not contingent on good performance. Although workers
prefer a closer link between pay and performance, it was not present in their jobs. Why? There
are probably a number of reasons, such as unreliable performance appraisal systems,
subjectively administered rewards, poor managerial skills in showing employees the pay–
The Transformational Leader (1 of 3)
In using the transactional style, the leader relies on contingent rewards and on management by
exception. Research shows that when contingent reinforcement is used, followers exhibit an
increase in performance and satisfaction; followers believe that accomplishing objectives will
result in their receiving desired rewards. Using management by exception, the leader won’t be
involved unless objectives aren’t being accomplished.
follower with the motivation for hard work that is self-rewarding (internal). Transactional
leaders will adjust goals, direction, and mission for practical reasons. Transformational leaders,
on the other hand, make major changes in the firm’s or unit’s mission, way of doing business,
and human resources management to achieve their vision. The transformational leader will
overhaul the entire philosophy, system, and culture of an organization. The transformational
leader uses and expounds upon attitudinal, charismatic, and transitive methods of leadership.
The Transformational Leader (3 of 3)
The development of transformational leadership factors has evolved from research by Bass. He
identified five factors (the first three apply to transformational, and the last two apply to
transactional leadership) that describe transformational leaders. The factors are shown on the
slide.
Coaching (1 of 3)
Coaching is the everyday interaction of helping another employee increase his or her
understanding of the work and improve performance.
Coaching (2 of 3)
In Chapter 2, mentoring and socialization were discussed. Mentors are usually senior employees
and are often similar in background, religion, ethnicity, and gender to protégés. Coaches come
in all varieties and aren’t always linked to seniority. Coaches possess skills, experience, and
ability that leaders display. Included in the arsenal of exceptional coaches are a talent for
observing, decisive decision making, exceptional communication ability, a good understanding
of the reward–performance feedback that makes sense, and the ability to be nonjudgmental.
Coaching (3 of 3)
From 1997 to 2002, Doug Blevins served as a kicking coach and a leader for the Miami
Dolphins football team. This is remarkable because he has never attempted to kick a football in
his life. Doug was born with cerebral palsy and has never walked. Doug has exceptional
observational and coaching skills. He breaks each kicking motion down to its component parts.
He then studies the behavior, motions, and mechanics of the kickers and develops a practice
plan for each kicker (punts, field goals, kickoffs) and drills them. Doug Blevins offers a few
hints on how to coach and lead that can be used in organizations which are shown on the slide.
Recommended Coaching Techniques
Coaching requires confronting the fact that a person is not skilled or talented enough at present
to perform well. The buildup of skills to perform well often takes a lot of time and patience.
Coaches need to be committed for the long term to be able to see results. Practicing a number of
coaching techniques is recommended for long-term success. Included in the recommended set
are those shown on the slide.
The essence of coaching and leading is to be creative and to look for positives. It may take a
long time to observe successes, but a steady course can be very rewarding to both the coach and
the pupil.
Servant Leadership
Should a leader be served by his or her followers? In 1977, Robert Greenleaf proposed the
opposite. He wrote that a leader should be driven by a desire to serve, helping those who have a
legitimate need regardless of their status and without an expectation of a reciprocal obligation.
Greenleaf proposed that the leader should be a servant. While this desire to serve is the central
characteristic of servant leadership, the approach is typically thought to also include leader
humility, treating others as equals in relationships, and the application of high moral values.
This form of leadership is associated with helping workers see themselves as whole and living
purposeful lives.
relevant goal achievement. The leadership needed to be effective cannot be generalized in a
global context.
Factors Linked to Multicultural Leadership Effectiveness
The effective multicultural leader in different global settings apparently needs various
leadership skills that are not always so obvious. In cross-cultural studies of managers, Bass
identified seven factors linked to leadership effectiveness as shown on the slide.
The skills and other competencies of the leader, however, comprise only one variable in the
leadership context. Other factors to consider include the subordinates, the peers, the superiors,
the task, and the task environment. Leadership in a multicultural situation, whether the
management of a joint venture, a diverse work group in the United States, or a subsidiary
abroad, poses many challenging tasks.
In Review, Did We…
Instructors may wish to refer to the learning objectives to facilitate a review of the chapter
concepts.
Summary of Key Points
❑ Leadership is the process of influencing others to facilitate the attainment of organizationally
relevant goals. Exercising leadership does not require that one be in a formal leadership
position. Three important variables present in all leadership situations are people, task, and
environment.
❑ Behavior approaches to leadership focus on the behavior of the leader. Job-centered and
employee-centered leadership and initiating structure and consideration are examples of what
has been identified as important leader behavior. Behavior approaches and trait approaches
both fail to include the nature of the leadership situation in attempting to prescribe effective
leadership approaches.
❑ Charismatic, transactional, and transformational approaches are interesting and insightful
ways of analyzing leadership. Charismatic leaders are able to attract and influence followers.
❑ Transformational leaders are able to influence others by using charisma, paying attention to
followers, and stimulating others.
❑ The leader-member exchange explanation of leadership proposes that a leader can be
effective by being flexible in using the appropriate style with various individuals.
Review and Discussion Questions
1. Is coaching a specific leadership approach or is it another form of mentoring? Explain.
Ans: Student answers will vary, depending on their evaluation of the facts presented. Sample
answer: Coaching involves using leadership skills in one-on-one situations to help others improve
2. Over time, the many different approaches used to explain leadership have become
increasingly involved and complex. Why do you think this has happened?
Ans: Student answers will vary. Sample answer: Leadership theories have become more complex
because leadership itself has become more complex. We no longer manage manufacturing facilities
3. Organizations annually spend a great deal of money on leadership training. Is this a wise
investment? Are there other, less costly ways of improving leadership effectiveness?
4. How can “evil” individuals such as Adolf Hitler influence followers? Explain this in terms
of charisma.
Ans: As with all charismatic leaders, Hitler and other evil individuals create an atmosphere of
motivation based on emotional commitment. They show a strong commitment to their vision, project
5. Why would communication skills be considered to be important in every explanation of
leadership covered in this chapter?
Ans: Communication skills are important because leaders must be able to clearly articulate their
6. Realistically how much control does a leader have over situational favorableness? How
might a leader go about trying to improve favorableness? Does it really make sense for a
leader to try to decrease favorableness?
Ans: A leader’s degree of control over situation favorability depends on the particular situation;
however, several strategies are available. For example, to boost leader-member relations, the leader
can request that particular employees work with him/her and transfer particular employees out of
7. It has been suggested that good leadership is knowing when to take charge and when to
delegate. How consistent is this with various situational approaches discussed in this chapter?
Ans: Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model certainly echoes this notion. The taking
8. Is leadership more important in a large unit or a small unit? Explain.
Ans: Student answers will vary depending on their individual conclusions. Sample answer: The
question is not so much whether leadership is more important to small or large groups as it is what
type of leadership is important to each group. Managing larger groups generally involves managing
9. Is there a cause-and-effect relationship between leader behavior and follower performance?
What is the nature or direction of the relationship? How strong is the relationship?
Ans: Student answers will vary. Sample answer: Some people say there is a cause-effect relationship
10. What substitutes for leadership exist for a student preparing to take a final examination in
a course offered as part of a company’s educational benefits?
Ans: Numerous factors substitute for leadership for a student preparing for a final examination.
Within the subordinate, for example, there may be a sense of purpose driven by professionalism or a
desire to prepare for a higher job or even a job outside the company. Within the task, leadership
Exercise 15-1: Task and People Orientation
Purpose
To enhance student understanding of the strengths as a task-focused leader and a people-focused
leader.
Ask students to discuss the following:
1. Are you surprised by your placement in the line? Did you assume you would be
more task focused than you are? More people focused?
2. What examples of your leadership behavior have you witnessed that support your
current placement? Have you observed behaviors that would support your being
somewhere else in the line?
3. Where do you think an “ideal” leadership should be positioned? Does the group
Exercise 15-2 Leadership Style Analysis
Purpose
To learn how to diagnose different leadership situations, to apply a systematic procedure for
In particular, the exercise can demonstrate:
1. The difficulties of diagnosing leadership situations. This reality makes the important point that
diagnosing leadership situations can be a very complex and challenging task and that diagnosis
heavily depends on perceptions. This becomes clear when a student, who have diagnosed and
solved the problems independently, complete the exercise a second time in a group.
CASE 15.1: ROTATING LEADERS: ORPHEUS ORCHESTRA
Discussion Questions:
1. What would business organizations such as Kraft Foods gain from observing Orpheus in
action?
2. Orpheus rotates the concertmaster among core-group members. What is the logic of
rotating the leader?
Each core leader brings a different perspective to the orchestra, and that means that more
strength will be brought to the leadership role. Also, all followers do not respond the same to
3. What are some of the substitutes for permanent leadership that exist within Orpheus?
There is the use of feedback by orchestra members as they sit as an audience and take note.