CHAPTER 13
Motivation at Work
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the basic model of performance.
2. Discuss motivation and human needs.
Chapter Outline
Opening Case: Motivation through Empowerment
Reviewing a concert by the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra, New York Times music critic Vivien
Schweitzer once wrote that the orchestra played Robert Schumann’s Symphony No. 2 “with
It’s this disconnect between motivation and satisfaction—and between motivation and product
quality—that Orpheus was conceived to rectify, and the first principle in what’s now known as
the “Orpheus Process” is this: Put power in the hands of the people doing the work. In most
orchestras, the conductor makes more or less autocratic decisions about what will be played and
how. The input of the musicians is neither sought nor welcomed, and unsolicited advice may
actually be sharply rebuffed—and may, in fact serve as grounds for dismissal.
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Chapter 13: Motivation at Work
Introduction
Motivation determines how a person will exert his or her effort. More specifically, it represents
the forces operating on the person to exert effort, as well as the direction in which that effort will
be exerted. An effective manager not only must motivate employees to exert some effort but also
must make sure the effort is exerted in a way that it produces organizationally valued outcomes.
I. A Basic Model of Performance
Any level of performance on any task is not solely a function of motivation—it is a joint function
of ability, motivation, and context. The HR manager must play a critical role in determining two
of these critical elements: the ability and the motivation sides of performance. The third element,
context refers to such things as equipment and materials. Context, however, is usually not the
purview of human resources.
II. Motivation and Needs
Everyone has needs they attempt to satisfy. For many people on a day-to-day basis, these needs
are pretty simple and relatively easy to satisfy. All of their behavior would be aimed at satisfying
basic needs in life, and only after these were satisfied they would begin thinking about other, less
critical needs. This view includes several need-based theories of motivation.
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This is similar to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The basic hierarchy is presented in
Figure 13.1 and illustrates the five categories of needs arranged from the most basic needs at the
bottom to the more complex needs at the top. The lowest level of needs, labeled physiological
needs, includes such things as the need for food or water. The next level of needs, security needs,
Considerable research has been done on Maslow’s theory, and the results of that research suggest
that people are motivated by more than one need at any point in time and do not always march
neatly up the hierarchy—sometimes they move down as well. In fact, some years later, Clayton
HR in the 21st Century: Striving for Balance
The good news is that 60 percent of HR executives are satisfied with the work–life services that
their companies offer employees. That bad news is that 16 percent of their employees agree with
them. According to a study conducted by the Corporate Executive Board, a global network of
business professionals, the disconnect results from the fact that HR managers tend to value
different services than employees do. More than 60 percent of the 50,000 workers polled in the
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There are other need-based theories of motivation as well. The best known is probably Frederick
Herzberg’s dual factor theory, which identifies motivators and hygiene factors as two sets of
conditions at work that can satisfy needs. The research on this theory provides little empirical
support for the model.
III. Process Theories of Motivation
Process theories of motivation are concerned with how a person becomes motivated to perform
in a certain way.
A. Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory is probably the most basic process theory. Stated quite simply,
reinforcement theory, usually associated with B. F. Skinner, proposes that all behavior is a
function of its consequences. Figure 13.2 presents the model of behavior that underlies
reinforcement theory. The model has three components only: stimulus, response, and
outcomes.
• The stimulus is something in the environment that cues one about a behavior.
On the other hand, the supervisor might say and do nothing after the employee’s late-night
assignment. If this were the case, the employees might or might not be willing to stay late
again but, eventually, if the supervisor continued to ignore the employee’s staying late, he or
she would no longer be willing to remain and work. Finally, the supervisor could respond by
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Figure 13.3 also presents three scenarios in which the behavior involved is undesirable (poor
quality of work). Scenarios 4, 5, and 6 are also referred to as positive reinforcement,
extinction, and punishment, respectively, but now the consequences for the organization are
quite different.
• In scenario 4, the situation will be disastrous because it will almost ensure that poor
When a supervisor works to simultaneously eliminate undesired behavior (through
punishment or extinction) and reward desired behavior, it is known as behavior
modification. In the preceding example, a supervisor would probably not actually praise an
Punishment is quite effective because, when done properly, it establishes a strong link
between a behavior and a negative outcome. But one does not always need to punish someone
in order to get a behavior to disappear. Punishment (and positive reinforcement) work best
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illustrated in Table 13.1.
First, there are interval schedules versus radio schedules. Interval schedules reinforce
behavior as a function of the passage of time. A radio schedule reinforces behavior as a
function of how many times it occur.
• With a fixed interval schedule, employees are paid once every 2 weeks as long as they
continue to do their jobs.
B. Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory, sometimes referred to as VIE theory, is a fairly complex theory from a
cognitive perspective, because it casts the employee in the role of decision maker. Expectancy
theory is concerned with three components and the links among them. The components are
termed effort, performance, and outcomes and are used in unusual ways.
• The first link is between effort and performance, and it is sometimes referred to as the
Figure 13.4 illustrates the way the model works and indicates that the model is used to
estimate the “force” operating on the employer to increase her or his effort.
C. Equity Theory
J. Stacey Adams developed another somewhat narrow but useful process theory called equity
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D. An Integrative Model of Motivation
Although there are few more models of motivation, need-based models, reinforcement theory,
expectancy theory, and equity theory collectively deal with most of the issues facing a human
resource manager. But one can integrate the useful information provided by each theory to
IV. Related Theories and Perspectives on Motivation
A. Goal Theory
One of the theories of motivation is goal theory, first proposed by Ed Locke. Goal theory is
fairly simple because it is based on the premise that people with goals work harder than
B. Agency Theory
Another interesting model of motivation is based almost entirely in economics and is known
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as agency theory. Agency theory addresses potential conflicts of interests among different
groups of stakeholders in the organization. The name of the theory, and some of its basic
In fact, principals and agents differ on several important issues. Agents are less likely than
principals to take risks when they make decisions because their livelihood tends to depend on
C. Intrinsic Motivation
Most models and theories of motivation are concerned primarily with extrinsic motivation,
which requires an external agent to administer a reward that is separate from the actual task or
job being performed. This is in contrast to intrinsic motivation. As others have stated it,
D. Creativity
The most commonly used definition of creative behavior at work involves doing things that
are innovative and provide some value for the organization. In general, experts characterize
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Closing Case: Bigfoot’s Motivation
Case Summary
Bigfoot Entertainment, distributor of such diverse films as Midnight Movie (a horror flick) and 3
Needles (about the worldwide AIDS crisis), was founded by German serial entrepreneur Michael
Gleissner. As head of Bigfoot, Gleissner served as executive producer on Midnight Movie and 3
Needles, as well as on Irreversi, his second effort at writing and directing, and on Shanghai Kiss,
in which he also tried his hand at acting.
Case Questions
1. What factors motivate Michael Gleissner? How has that motivation factored into his
decision making?
Students’ answers to this question might vary. Gleissner is personally motivated by a
variety things. Gleissner was an e-commerce pioneer in Germany, and he is a serial
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2. What factors motivate people to seek employment at Bigfoot or to enroll in IAFT?
Students’ answers to this question might vary. There are many factors that motivate people
to seek employment at Bigfoot or to enroll in IAFT:
• Its mission statement is producing and financing “innovative entertainment content,
3. Compare and contrast how Orpheus, Bigfoot Studios, and IAFT motivate people.
Students’ answers for this question might vary. Orpheus, Bigfoot Studios, and IAFT are
organizations that promote their employees and students to be creative and innovative in
knowing how to perform their jobs and in learning.
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Discussion Questions
1. What are the three basic determinants of performance on a task?
Three basic factors determine performance: an individual’s ability to perform, the
environmental context, and an individual’s motivation to perform. The environmental
2. Identify and summarize the five basic need categories included in Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs.
The needs discussed in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are arranged in the following order
3. Compare and contrast Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG theory.
Both Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG theory present multitiered
approaches to understanding individual motivation based on needs. Both models assume
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4. What is the primary distinction between need-based theories and process theories of
motivation?
The primary distinction between need-based theories and process theories of motivation is
5. Identify and describe the three basic forms of reinforcement that most directly influence
behavior in organizations.
There are three basic forms of reinforcement that shape organizational behavior. Positive
6. What are the four primary schedules of reinforcement?
There are four primary schedules of reinforcement that are partial in nature. Interval
7. Identify and summarize the basic elements of expectancy theory and discuss how they
relate to one another.
Expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors if they
perceive that those behaviors are likely to lead to outcomes that they value. Effort-to–
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8. How does equity theory relate to organizational rewards?
Equity theory explores how individuals evaluate their inputs to the work setting compared
9. Describe how goal theory relates to employee motivation.
Goal theory states that individuals in a company tend to work more diligently when they
10. What is intrinsic motivation? How is it different from extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to perform in a job because it is enriching. Self–
an agent outside the work.
Ethical Dilemmas in HR Management
Scenario Summary
Students are asked to imagine themselves in the role of a new human resources manager in a
Questions
1. What are the ethical issues in this situation?
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2. What do you think most managers would do in this situation?
Students’ answers will vary. Many students may believe that the HR manager should state
3. What would you do?
Assignment
This exercise gives students a better understanding of equity and justice in the workplace. As an
in-class exercise, required time is approximately 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the amount of
time available. Instructors may divide the students into groups, or the students may form groups
themselves.
Step 1 (15 minutes): Have the students read the vignette about making a promotion decision as a
Step 2 (20 minutes): Ask the students to answer the discussion questions individually or as a
group.
1. Using equity theory as a framework, how do you think David and Becky are likely to see
the situation?
David is likely to view the situation as unfair and will try to reduce the inequity by working
2. Outline a conversation with David in which you will convey your decision to him. What
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will you say?
Students’ answers will vary. Students should mention that a manager should explain to
3. What advice might you offer Becky in her new job? About interacting with David?
Students’ answers will vary. However, Becky should continue working diligently on the
4. What other rewards might you offer David to keep him motivated?