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Chapter 9
The Early Republic
1789–1824
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Summarize the main social characteristics of the New Republic.
• Explain the organization of the new government and the emergence of political parties.
• Describe the primary accomplishments and conflicts of John Adams’s presidency.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The Constitution, which went into effect in 1788, was intended to correct the flaws of the
Articles of Confederation by strengthening the national government and weakening the state
governments. Yet despite the Constitution’s ratification, most Americans retained a strong
suspicion of government power. How the new federal system would operate in practice could be
established only over time and through experience. Thus, launching the new government was
filled with peril. The Revolution strengthened the ideology of republicanism, but Americans with
different political, social, and economic visions of the republic’s future interpreted republicanism
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THEMES
1789: A Social Portrait
As the new government began operation in 1789, the republic could be said to be divided
roughly between commercial and semisubsistence areas of the country. In the lives of
semisubsistence farm families, wealth was fairly evenly distributed, and people tried to provide
as much of their own food and wants as they could. They had only limited contact with regions
beyond their local community, seldom saw cash, and functioned in a largely barter economy. By
The New Government
Americans put their faith in George Washington, who more than any other individual personified
the republic. Washington organized the executive branch into departments and created a cabinet
of advisors. The most important positions in the cabinet went to Alexander Hamilton, as
secretary of the treasury, and Thomas Jefferson, as secretary of state. A strong nationalist,
recommendations. His argument that the Constitution gave the national government implied as
well as explicit powers and that the document had to be interpreted loosely persuaded
Washington to sign the bill creating the national bank. While these ideas appealed especially to
citizens active in the commercial life of the nation, they stimulated fears among other Americans.
Eventually the Republican Party, organized by James Madison and headed by Thomas Jefferson,
opposed the policies of the Federalists. Republicans feared that a corrupt aristocracy would come
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first national parties in American history. The Federalists, led by Hamilton and Washington, took
shape first. In general, Federalists believed in order and hierarchy and supported a loose
construction of the Constitution (in order to allow the federal government to actively encourage
commerce and manufacturing). Eventually the Republican Party, organized by Madison and
stimulated the creation of rival parties. In 1796, Washington announced that he would not seek
another term. In the first contested presidential election in American history, John Adams, the
Federalist candidate, defeated Jefferson, who in an odd turn of events was elected vice president.
The Presidency of John Adams
Differences over America’s role in European affairs continued during the administration of
Federalist John Adams. The major events of these years—the XYZ Affair, an unofficial naval
war with France, the Federalist-sponsored Alien and Sedition Acts, and the Republican response
Adams (although the House had to break the tie between him and his vice-presidential running
mate, Aaron Burr). Despite the threat of violent tumult and even civil war, power passed
peacefully from one administration and party to another. Under Washington’s firm leadership,
the Federalists had made the Constitution a workable instrument of government and established
economic policies and principles of foreign affairs (particularly of neutrality) that even
The Political Culture of the Early Republic
Today many see political polarization, but it is far from the poisonous political atmosphere of the
early republic as the two-party system emerged. The political culture of those times was marked
by verbal and, at times, physical violence. Oddly the deepening divisions among national leaders
also encouraged ordinary Americans to take an interest in politics. Political festivals allowed
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Jefferson in Power
The Republican Party, with its sympathy for agrarian ideals, endorsed strict construction of the
Constitution, wanted a less active federal government, and harbored a strong fear of aristocracy.
The growing political engagement of ordinary white Americans played an important role in
electing Thomas Jefferson to the presidency. He later referred to his election as “the Revolution
Whites and Native Americans in the West
Jefferson saw western expansion as an economic, social, and even political blessing. When he
dispatched James Monroe to Paris to aid in negotiations for the purchase of New Orleans and
West Florida from the French, he did not realize that soon the new nation would have even more
territory to expand and explore. Napoleon, his dreams of a North American empire dashed in
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urged adoption of white culture. Most of the tribes in the region, however, rallied to a religious
movement promoted by the Shawnee leader Tenskwatawa, who was known as the Prophet, much
as frontier families turned to the revivalism of camp meetings. The Prophet sought to revitalize
The Second War for American Independence
Increasingly, foreign affairs dominated American politics. When war resumed between Britain
and France in 1805, neither power was willing to respect the United States’s rights as a neutral
nation, and began to raid American shipping on the high seas and impress American sailors.
Americans proved woefully ill-prepared for war. Efforts to invade Canada failed dismally, the
British occupied Washington and burned a number of government buildings, and only Andrew
Jackson’s victory at New Orleans redeemed American pride. Meanwhile, Tecumseh allied his
followers with the British, seeing such an alliance as the western tribes’ best chance to safeguard
their lands. His death in battle ended his movement unify native peoples. New England, a
Federalist stronghold, refused to support the war, and the region’s opposition culminated in the
Hartford Convention of 1814, which rejected calls for disunion but proposed several
constitutional amendments to reduce the South’s political influence.
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LECTURE STRATEGIES
1790s Biographical Sources
As the first decade of the Republic under the Constitution, the 1790s were a pivotal period. The
important distinction between commercial and semisubsistence regions should be emphasized;
the writings of Franklin and Crèvecoeur contain valuable material that can be used to expand
The Hamilton and Jefferson Rivalry
A lecture on the growing conflict between Hamilton and Jefferson brings the advantage of
combining issues of ideology and substance with personality. Hamilton’s character, his political
thought, and his vision of how America should develop are all interesting topics, since he really
Impact of Foreign Affairs
Also critical to the formation of parties in this society were foreign affairs, particularly the
impact of the French Revolution on American politics and diplomacy. Since students may well
be a bit hazy on the events of the Revolution, it might be useful to retell the story in outline, in
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Party Ideologies and Traditions of the American Revolution
In tracing both the imperatives of foreign policy and the process of party formation, it is useful to
examine how the ideologies of both parties drew on the traditions of the American Revolution.
The continuing importance of republicanism, which stimulated the strong fears of internal and
The Dilemma of the Federalists
The 1796 election heralded the emergence (but not the acceptance) of the two-party system.
During the next four years, John Adams confronted serious problems abroad and increasing
turmoil and dissent at home. A discussion of Adams’s presidency could conclude with an
Western Expansion from the Native American Perspective
While expansion is usually examined from the white perspective, the narrative of this text has
continually attempted to consider the subject from the Native American perspective as well.
Students might be asked to compare the Prophet and Tecumseh as leaders, and evaluate the
Foreign Affairs
Inevitably, foreign affairs assume a large place in an examination of this period. One method of
addressing this topic is through the issue of the difficulties of constructing a national identity.
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Consider whether the United States’s status as a new nation played any role in the development
of its conflict with the Barbary States. Why did Adams and Jefferson take a more aggressive
stance against these nations than did the leaders of Europe? Why did the United States continue
The War of 1812 and Its Consequences
Since the War of 1812 was a minor affair militarily, it is often glided over, yet discussion of the
conflict demonstrates the extent of American unpreparedness, the ineffectiveness of the
government, and the critical victories won by the American forces. In many ways, the war
illustrated the inadequacy of Jefferson’s principles of limited government and drastic
economizing. The lessons of the war and the reasons for the poor American performance are
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
Were Political Parties Inevitable?
Students take political parties for granted, but it took time for them to form and even longer for
Differences between the Federalists and Republicans
The differences between the two parties raise several potentially fruitful avenues of inquiry.
Discussions could focus on differences in ideology, leadership, policies, and constituencies.
The Revolution of 1800
In the wake of the insurrection of January 6th, 2021, students will likely show more interest in a
detailed lecture on the peaceful transition of power from Federalists to Republicans—even as
POWER OF PROCESS FOR PRIMARY SOURCES
Power of Process for Primary Sources is a critical thinking tool for reading and writing about
primary sources. As part of Connect History, McGraw-Hill Education’s learning platform, Power
of Process contains a database of over 400 searchable primary sources in addition to the
capability for instructors to upload their own sources. Instructors can then select a series of
strategies for students to use to analyze and comment upon a source. The Power of Process
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