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CHAPTER 27
New Frontiers
1960–1968
This chapter covers the administrations of Kennedy and Johnson, including social and economic devel-
opments, the civil rights revolution, and developments in Vietnam.
CORE OBJECTIVES
1. Assess President John F. Kennedy’s efforts to contain communism abroad and pursue civil rights and
other social programs at home.
2. Describe the strategies and achievements of the civil rights movement in the 1960s, and explain the
divisions that emerged among its activists during the decade.
3. Analyze Lyndon B. Johnson’s War on Poverty and Great Society initiatives, and evaluate their impact
on American society.
4. Explain Presidents Kennedy’s and Johnson’s motivations for deepening America’s military involve-
ment in the Vietnam War, and appraise their efforts to preserve a non-Communist South Vietnam.
5. Examine the presidential election of 1968, and explain the issues that propelled Richard Nixon to
victory.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. The New Frontier
A. Kennedy versus Nixon
B. A Vigorous New Administration
C. Kennedy and Civil Rights
D. Catastrophe in Cuba
E. The Vienna Summit
F. The Cuban Missile Crisis
G. Controlling Atomic Weapons
H. Kennedy and Vietnam
I. Kennedy’s Assassination
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2. Expansion of the Civil Rights Movement
A. Sit-Ins
B. Freedom Rides
C. James Meredith
D. Birmingham
E. “I Have a Dream!”
F. The Warren Court
G. Freedom Summer
H. From Civil Rights to Black Power
I. Black Power in Retrospect
3. Lyndon B. Johnson and the Great Society
A. Politics and Poverty
i. Civil Rights Act of 1964
ii. The War on Poverty
iii. Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
iv. The Election of 1964
B. The Great Society
i. Health Insurance, Housing, and Higher Education
ii. The Immigration Act
iii. Voting Rights Legislation
iv. Assessing the Great Society
4. The Tragedy of Vietnam
A. Escalation in Vietnam
B. The Context for Policy
C. The Turning Point
5. Sixties Crescendo
A. A Traumatic Year
B. Chicago and Miami
C. Nixon Triumphant
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LECTURE IDEAS
1. For a lecture on the continuing story of American involvement in Vietnam, see George C. Herring’s
America’s Longest War (2nd ed., 1986). Also see Marilyn B. Young’s The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990
2. James Meredith’s courageous effort to integrate the University of Mississippi in 1962 is an excellent
way to illustrate the hardline defiance of the Deep South to civil rights, the initial reluctance of the
Kennedy administration to challenge the status quo, and ultimately the use of military force to redeem
the original promise of Reconstruction. Useful resources include:
3. The Kennedy assassination remains one of the most traumatizing and controversial events in modern
American history. A presentation on this topic is sure to provoke student interest and discussion and is
an excellent way to teach the cold war politics that ultimately explain Kennedy’s killing. For the best
treatment of the subject by an academic historian, see Michael Kurtz’s Crime of the Century (1997).
4. A lecture detailing all aspects of the Great Society can be a good way to discuss the Johnson admin-
istration’s domestic policy. Include all the major aspects of the Great Society and the background that
led Johnson to pursue his agenda. Good references include:
5. The 1960s civil rights movement is often portrayed as a unified movement for equality and justice.
Although the goals may have been similar, the methodologies used to achieve equality and justice were
diverse and sometimes counterproductive to the movement. For example, the Black Panthers’ use of
violent tactics turned many would-be supporters of racial equality away from the movement. A lecture
on the Black Panther party will provide students a more complete picture of the civil rights movement
and will help them understand various reasons why the movement stalled in the late 1960s at the very
moment it was on the verge of real gains. Suggested readings include:
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6. A lecture on the year 1968 sets the tone for the height of the protest movement in the 1960s. Evaluate
the culture, economics, war, and politics of that year to show the change in American society that took
place throughout the decade. You might reference:
IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES / FLIPPED CLASSROOM SUGGESTIONS
1. Divide the class into several groups and ask each group to determine the goals of John F. Kennedy’s
New Frontier program. Additionally, ask each group to present its findings to see if any common
trends can be found.
2. Ask students to watch the last interview with President Lyndon B. Johnson, recorded on LBJ Ranch on
January 12, 1973, outside of class. In class, lead a discussion with students on President Johnson’s role
in bringing about greater racial equality in the United States. How does the interview add to our under-
standing of Johnson’s view of his own role in the civil rights movement? What did students find to be
the most striking aspect of the interview, especially considering that it was recorded during Johnson’s
final days?
3. Have students identify the main achievements of the civil rights movement by 1968. What role did pro-
tests and public action play?
4. Ask students to research outside of class the activities of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Com-
mittee (SNCC) and its involvement in the sit-in movements. Hold an in-class discussion in which
5. Divide the class into two groups, and have them research and analyze the Cuban missile crisis. One
group can look into how America discovered the missiles, and the other group can report on the crisis
from that point. Useful resources include:
6. Ask student groups to identify how the United States became increasingly involved in Vietnam. What
international situations spurred the United States into action? How were soldiers affected by their time
in Vietnam? Ask your students to discuss how American intervention in Vietnam shaped the 1960s.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss John F. Kennedy’s transformation concerning the issue of civil rights during his presidency.
2. Discuss why the United States became involved in the Vietnam war. What did it hope to gain in South-
east Asia, and did it achieve its objectives?
3. Assess the achievements and failures of John F. Kennedy’s foreign policy.
4. Analyze the topic of poverty during the Kennedy and Johnson years and what, if anything, each did
about this issue as president.
5. Discuss the landmark legislation of Lyndon Johnson’s “Great Society” and the impact it had on the
future of the United States.
6. Analyze the reasons for Richard Nixon’s rise to the presidency in 1968.
7. Discuss the significance of the year 1968. Include both domestic and foreign issues in your class
discussion.
PRACTICING CITIZENSHIP
After all the studies and revelations about the shortcomings of his personal life and his presidency, what
so vividly endures of President John F. Kennedy’s public legacy is his idealistic call to service, especially
to the youth of the nation. It was an eloquent plea to all of us to give something back, to make this a better