Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
Lecture Notes
Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I: Early Development and
Strain Models of Crime
Learning Objectives
8.1 Describe the early theories of social structure presented in the 19th century.
8.2 Identify Émile Durkheim’s contributions to the evolution of social structure theories.
8.4 Identify some of the revisions or variations of strain theory and note how they differ from
Merton’s original theory.
8.6 Identify some ways the various models of strain theory have informed the making of policies
intended to reduce criminality.
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
i. This chapter will examine explanations of criminal conduct that emphasize
the differences among varying groups in societies, particularly in the
United States.
ii. The chapter deals with social structure theories that disregard any
II. Early European Theories of Social Structure
A. Early European Theorists: Comte, Guerry, and Quetelet
i. Theorists work: Inspired by social dynamics of industrial revolution.
ii. Transition of societies from agriculture-based to industry-based economies.
iii. Population movement to urban cities: Increase in crime rates.
iv. Comte is widely credited with coining the term sociology, because he was
the first to be recognized for emphasizing and researching concepts based
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
v. Property crimes: Higher in wealthy areas.
vi. Violent crimes: Higher in poor areas
vii. Guerry concluded that opportunity, in the sense that the wealthy had more
to steal, was the primary cause of property crime.
viii. Certain types of individuals are more likely to commit crime.
ix. Quetelet’s addition of special component:
x. Criminality: Deterministic – Caused by factors outside an individual’s
control.
III. Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie
i. General model of societal development: Largely based on the
economic/labor distribution, in which societies are seen as evolving from a
simplistic mechanical society toward a multilayered organic society.
ii. The collective conscience is the degree to which individuals of a society
think alike, or as Durkheim put it, the totality of social likenesses.
iii. Mechanical societies: In Durkheim’s theory, these societies were rather
iv. Characteristics of mechanical societies:
a. Simple-layered social structure with strong collective conscience.
b. Creates strong solidarity among members.
c. Law enforces conformity.
v. Organic Societies: In in the Durkheimian model, those societies that have
a high division of labor and thus a low level of agreement about societal
norms, largely because everyone has such different roles in society.
vi. Shift from mechanical societies to organic societies creates a climate for
antisocial behavior.
vii. Durkheim claimed that crime was needed for several reasons.
a. Crime is important because it defines the moral boundaries of
viii. Need for bonding: Makes crime necessary.
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
ix. Relative consensus in mechanical societies lead to stagnation of creative
thought.
x. Modern societies: Many deviations due to differences across groups of
labor divisions as there is no collective conscience.
xi. Law: Governs the interactions among different classes.
xii. With rapid change, regulatory mechanism of society breaks down causing
anomie.
xiii. Suicide is a product of meanings and structural aspects that result from
IV. Merton’s Strain Theory
i. Emphasis on a sense of frustration in crime causation.
ii. Trace their origin to the seminal theory of Durkheim and Merton.
A. Cultural Context and Assumptions of Strain Theory
i. Observed how much the economic institution impacted almost all other
social factors, particularly crime.
ii. Socialized image of the goal is material wealth.
iii. Socialized concept of means of achieving goal is hard work.
iv. Merton claims that most of the strain and frustration is due not necessarily
v. Merton’s Concept of Anomie and Strain
a. An ideal society would feature an equal emphasis on the
conventional goals and means in society.
vi. Adaptations to Strain
a. Conformity: An adaptation to strain in which an individual buys
into the conventional means of success and also buys into
conventional goals.
b. Ritualism: An adaptation to strain in which an individual buys into
the conventional means of success (e.g., work, school, etc.) but
does not buy into the conventional goals.
c. Innovation: An adaptation to strain in which an individual buys
B. Evidence and Criticism of Merton’s Strain Theory
i. Merton’s strain theory is primarily a structural model of crime that is more
a theory of societal groups than of individual motivations. Therefore, some
modern studies have used aggregated group rates (i.e., macro-level
measures) to test the effects of deprivation as opposed to using individual
(micro-level) rates of inequality and crime.
ii. Critics have claimed that these studies do not directly measure perceptions
or feelings of strain, so they are only indirect examinations of Merton’s
theory. Studies wrongly done.
V. Variations of Merton’s Strain Theory
A. Cohen’s Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration and Gang Formation
i. Middle-class-measuring-rod emphasizes factors such as motivation,
accountability, responsibility, deferred gratification, long-term planning,
respect for authority and property, and controlling emotions.
ii. Status frustration: Like Merton, Cohen emphasized the youths’
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
iv. Reaction formation: A Freudian defense mechanism applied to Cohen’s
vi. Delinquent boy: A type of lower-class male youth, identified by Cohen,
who responds to strains and status frustration by joining with similar others
in a group to commit crime. Can be seen as innovator.
vii. College boy: A type of lower-class male youth who has experienced the
same strains and status frustration as his peers but responds to his
disadvantaged situation by dedicating himself to overcoming the odds and
competing in the middle-class schools despite his unlikely chances for
success.
viii. Corner boy: A type of lower-class male youth who has experienced the
B. Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity
i. Emphasized three different types of gangs based on characteristics of social
structure.
ii. Nature of gang varies according to the availability of illegal opportunities.
iii. Criminal gangs: A type of gang identified by Cloward and Ohlin that
forms in lower-class neighborhoods with an organized structure of adult
criminal behavior. Such gangs tend to be highly organized and stable.
vi. Criticism
a. There is little evidence that gaps between what lower-class youth
aspire to and expect to achieve are predictive of feelings of
frustration and strain, or that such gaps are predictive of gang
membership or criminality.
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
VI. General Strain Theory
i. Does not rely on American Dream to explain strain.
ii. Assumes that people of all social class and economic positions deal with
strain.
iii. Emphasis on two additional categories: Presentation of noxious stimuli and
removal of positively valued stimuli.
A. Evidence and Criticisms of General Strain Theory
i. Recent studies: Attempted to examine validity of general strain theory.
ii. Establishes link between: Categories of strain and higher rates of
VII. Policy Implications of Strain Theory
i. Vital factors for policy regarding social structure: Educational and
vocational opportunities and Programs that develop healthy coping