Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
Lecture Notes
Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research
Learning Objectives
4.2 Name the components of rational choice theory that were not included or emphasized by
traditional Classical/deterrence theory in explaining criminal behavior.
4.4 Provide examples of modern-day applications and policies that most apply Beccaria’s
principles and the Classical/Neoclassical school.
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
A. The chapter discusses some of the more modern Classical School–based theories
that emphasize only the potential negative consequences of criminal actions,
whereas other theories focus on the possible benefits.
B. All the modern theoretical perspectives discussed in this chapter emphasize a
II. The Rebirth of Deterrence Theory and Contemporary Research
i. This rebirth was largely due to scientific reviews showing that the
rehabilitation programs popular during the 1960s had virtually no impact in
reducing recidivism among offenders, especially chronic offenders.
a. Although this conclusion was a bit overstated, it was true that
virtually none of the rehab programs significantly reduced
A. The Four Waves of Modern Deterrence Research
i. Aggregate Studies
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
a. Aggregate studies revealed a new interest in the deterrent aspects
of criminal behavior and further supported the importance of
certainty and severity of punishment in deterring individuals from
committing crime, particularly homicide.
b. Specifically, evidence showed that increased risk or certainty of
ii. Cross-Sectional Studies
a. Cross-sectional studies focused on individual perceptions of
certainty and severity of sanctions, primarily drawn at one point
in time.
iii. Longitudinal Studies
a. Studies that take certain measures over two or more time periods,
was that behavior was influencing perceptions of the risk and
severity of punishment more than perceptions were influencing
behavior.
b. This was referred to as the experiential effect, appropriately
named because an individual’s previous experience highly
iv. Scenario/Vignette Studies
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
a. Scenario research: Studies that involve providing participants
with specific hypothetical scenarios and then asking them what
B. Formal vs. Informal Deterrence
i. Formal/official deterrence: Meaning the deterrent effects of law
enforcement, courts, and corrections.
ii. Informal deterrence factors, include any factors beyond the formal
sanctions of police, courts, and corrections—such as employment, family,
friends, and community.
III. Rational Choice Theory
A. In terms of criminological research, the rational choice model emphasized
official/formal forms of deterrence as well as the informal factors that influence
individual decisions to engage in criminal behavior.
B. The studies on rational choice showed that while official/formal sanctions tend to
have some effect on individuals’ decisions to commit crime, they almost always
are relatively unimportant compared with extralegal/informal factors.
C. Individual perceptions of how much shame or loss of self-esteem one would
experience, even if no one else found out about the crime, was one of the most
IV. Routine Activities Theory
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
i. Routine activities theory is another contemporary form of the Classical
School framework in the sense that it assumes a rational, decision-making
offender.
A. The Three Elements of Routine Activities Theory
i. Motivated Offender(s)
a. People who tend to be motivated and leave it at that.
ii. Suitable Targets
iii. Lack of Guardianship
a. Guardianship is often thought of as an on-duty police officer or
security guard, which often is the case.
b. There are many other forms of guardianship, such as a household
dog, which studies demonstrate can be quite effective in home
protection.
B. Applications of Routine Activities Theory
i. The Minneapolis Hot Spots Study
a. Analyzing 911 calls for service in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
ii. Crime Mapping and Geographic Profiling
a. Applies global positioning systems (GPS) software to identify and
plot the exact location of every crime in a given jurisdiction.
b. Such GPS software has also been used to predict where certain
chronic offenders or crews/gangs will strike next.
iii. The Lifestyles Perspective
a. The lifestyles theory claims that individuals increase their
V. Policy Implications
i. The “broken windows” perspective—which shares many assumptions with
routine activities and rational choice theories—emphasizes the need for
police to crack down on minor offenses to reduce major crimes.
ii. A controversial three strikes law was passed by voter initiative in
California, and other states have adopted similar laws.
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021