Chapter 20: Recognition, Control, and Investigation of Drug Abuse
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Chapter 20
Recognition, Control, and Investigation of Drug
Abuse
Learning Objectives
1. Identify and describe several opium-derived drugs.
2. List and describe synthetic narcotics.
3. Identify and distinguish among stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens.
4. Outline techniques used in investigating dangerous drugs and narcotics.
5. Assess the motives, methods, and management of drug informants.
Introduction
Currently, every major police department in the United State has assigned—with ample
justification—a top priority to the control of drug abuse and related offenses. Most of the
departments have narcotics or drug units that specialize in the identification, arrest, and
Explanations for the phenomenal growth of drug abuse abound in the literature on this subject.
Many cite variables associated with socioeconomic and political conditions. Others suggest that
the inability of some individuals to deal with personal stress and emotional problems has led to
This chapter focuses on the categories of drugs that are most commonly encountered by law
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enforcement officers in their enforcement activities: opium-derived drugs, synthetic narcotics,
Another aspect of drug and narcotics cases that makes the investigation process atypical is the
use of drug informants. Drug informants can provide valuable information on various types of
drug activity, but compared with informants used in other investigations, they are perhaps the
Lecture Notes
I. Drugs and Scheduling
Officers and agents charged with investigation and interdiction of illegal drug activities are
responsible for a vast array of information in order to properly carry out their duties. Title II of
II. Opiates
Several drugs are derived from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Known as opiates, they
include opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, and other drugs less well known.
A. Opium
One of the first drugs of abuse was opium. Prolonged use creates both physical and
psychological dependence. Raw opium is the source of morphine, heroin, and codeine.
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B. Morphine
Morphine is obtained from raw opium; 10 pounds of raw opium yield 1 pound of morphine.
C. Heroin (Diacetylmorphine)
Heroin was developed in England in 1874, but it evoked little interest until about 1890, when
it was found to be considerably stronger than morphine. Being about four to five times
stronger than morphine, heroin is the principal drug of addiction among the opium
derivatives.
D. Codeine
The alkaloid codeine is found in raw opium in concentrations from 0.7% to 2.5%. It was first
isolated in 1832 as an impurity in a batch of morphine. Codeine is also a major ingredient in a
E. OxyContin
Another powerful narcotic that is presently sold legally is OxyContin. The active ingredient
in OxyContin is a morphine-like substance called oxycodone, which is also found in the
prescription drugs Percodan and Tylox.
F. Other Opium Derivatives
Other opium derivatives abused and stolen from pharmacies, hospitals, and physicians are
Dilaudid, Papaverine, and Pantopon.
G. Opiate Overdoses
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The Drug Enforcement Agency reports that overdoses, common with the potent varieties of
III. Synthetic Narcotics
Synthetic narcotics, though chemically related to the opium alkaloids, are produced entirely
within the laboratory.
A. Fentanyl
Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is 80 to 100 times more potent than morphine. It was
B. Meperidine (Demerol)
C. Methadone
Methadone is known by the commercial names Dolophine Hydrochloride and Methadone
IV. Stimulants
Drugs falling into the stimulants group directly stimulate the central nervous system, producing
A. Cocaine
Cocaine is a naturally occurring stimulant that is extracted from the leaves of the coca plant
(Erythroxylon coca).
Cocaine is most commonly inhaled, or snorted, through the nose. Repeated use often results in
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A less common route of administration for cocaine is intravenous injection. Furthermore,
intravenous injection introduces unknown quantities of cocaine or cocaine and heroin directly
and suddenly into the bloodstream, leaving body organs wholly unprotected from the toxic
effects of the drug. Cocaine deaths from intravenous injection are more numerous than from
snorting, despite the greater prevalence of the latter method.
B. Amphetamines
Amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine are so closely related chemically
that they can be differentiated from one another only in the laboratory. These compounds
C. Phenmetrazine (Preludin), Methylphenidate (Ritalin), and Pemoline (Cylert)
Phenmetrazine is related chemically to the amphetamines, and its abuse produces similar
effects. Like phenmetrazine, methylphenidate (Ritalin) is related chemically to amphetamines.
D. Crystallized Methamphetamine
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Crystallized methamphetamine, better known as crystal meth and speed during the 1960s
and 1970s, was originally taken as pills or injected. The Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic
Act of 2005 took several steps toward containing the pseudoephedrine problem by requiring
the following:
• Medications containing pseudoephedrine must be either “behind the counter” or in
In its solid form, the drug resembles rock candy or a chip of ice. When lighted in a glass pipe,
the crystals turn to liquid and produce a potent vapor that enters the bloodstream directly
through the lungs.
Yaba, also known as Nazi Speed, is a highly pure methamphetamine pill originating from
E. Methcathinone
Methcathinone, called cat or goob, is a psychomotor stimulant with a chemical structure
F. Khat
Not to be confused with the previously described methcathinone (street name cat), khat
(pronounced “cot”) is a leafy import from a large flowering shrub that grows in northeast
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V. Depressants (Sedatives)
Depressants (sedatives) depress the central nervous system and are prescribed in small doses to
A. Glutethimide (Doriden)
When introduced in 1954, glutethimide was wrongly believed to be a nonaddictive barbiturate
B. Methaqualone
Methaqualone was at one time very popular in the United States but has since been
VI. Speedballing
Speedballing is a slang term that refers to the simultaneous ingestion, usually through injection,
VII. Hallucinogens
Hallucinogenic drugs, natural or synthetic, distort the perception of objective reality.
A. Phencyclidine (PCP)
Phencyclidine, commonly called PCP, in its pharmaceutically pure form is a solid white
powder. PCP is most commonly smoked or snorted. The effects of PCP include feeling
B. Methylenedioxy Methamphetamine
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Methylenedioxy methamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy) is a bitter white powder related to
amphetamine and mescaline. According to many experts, ecstasy is psychologically addictive
and can result in paranoia and psychosis.
C. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD 25)
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a semisynthetic compound produced from lysergic
D. Mescaline (Peyote)
The primary active ingredient of the peyote cactus is the hallucinogen mescaline, which is
E. Psilocybin and Psilocyn
Psilocybin and psilocyn are obtained from mushrooms generally grown in Mexico. Like
mescaline, they have historically been used in Indian rites.
F. Foxy and 5-MeO-AMT
Foxy became a controlled substance via emergency scheduling by the Drug Enforcement
G. Ketamine
Ketamine hydrochloride is a synthetic drug that was developed in the mid-1960s and is an
anesthetic agent that has legitimate uses, mostly in veterinary medicine.
VIII. Cannabis
A. Marijuana
Although classified as a mild hallucinogen, the Schedule I substance cannabis is often
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Marijuana grow houses are normal houses in residential areas that are converted for the
purposes of growing marijuana. Marijuana grow houses are not only a police concern; they
are also a public safety issue.
There are many dangers associated with marijuana grow houses and problems that can result
from having one in a neighborhood. Some of them include the following:
• Poisonous fumes: Noxious fumes from the growing operation can build up inside the
house or be vented outside.
There are a number of factors that may indicate the presence of a marijuana home grow
operation. Some of them include the following:
• Visitors behave strangely or visit at odd hours.
The amount of money that marijuana grow houses generate is well into the billions. This
clearly is a very lucrative criminal enterprise.
B. Hashish
A drug-rich resinous secretion from the flowers of the cannabis plant, hashish, is processed
C. Hashish Oil
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The Middle East is the main source of hashish entering the United States. Liquid hashish, or
hashish oil, is produced by concentrating delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
D. Synthetic Marijuana
E. Drug Paraphernalia
Under federal law, drug paraphernalia refers to “any equipment, product, or material of any
IX. Inhalants
A common misconception about inhalant sniffing, snorting, bagging (fumes inhaled from a
X. Major Countries of Origin and Trafficking Patterns
The history of drug abuse in the United States is intertwined with trends and patterns of not only
A. Mexico
Mexico has the distinction of being not only a major source of heroin, methamphetamine, and
B. Columbia
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The country of Colombia, located in South America, has a political and environmental climate
C. The Golden Crescent
The Golden Crescent is the moniker adopted for three countries in Southwest Asia:
D. The Golden Triangle
Burma, Laos, and Thailand make up the area referred to as the Golden Triangle, known
mainly for heroin and marijuana production. Drugs from this area are transported to the
United States by Thai nationals, as well as Nigerian and Chinese traffickers.
E. Europe
Western Europe remains the biggest producer of MDMA or ecstasy. The Drug Enforcement
XI. Drug Investigations
Narcotics investigations are particularly challenging to law enforcement because most
A. Gathering Information
Drug investigations must rely heavily on information from outside sources in order to develop
a case.
Anonymous tips can come from people with varying motives: relatives or neighbors may be
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XII. Confidential Informants
Narcotics investigators have to rely heavily on the use of confidential informants, who generally
know dealers, manufacturers, and users personally.
A. Informants: Motivations and Types
Like most people, informants need motivation to produce. The most frequently encountered
motivational factor may be the confidential informant’s (CI’s) fear of punishment for criminal
Egotistical informants, who are encountered frequently, may not have received positive
reinforcement from their parents or schoolmates when growing up. Consequently, they seek
positive feedback from their handlers as their primary reward. Investigators who provide this
positive reinforcement motivate egotistical informants to continue supplying information.
The most dangerous and disruptive informants in drug law enforcement are perversely
motivated CIs. They offer their services in order to identify undercover agents; learn the
department’s methods, targets, and intelligence; or eliminate their own competition in drug
sales.
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B. Department Policy
Agencies should not leave the management of drug informants exclusively to investigators.
Formulating a written policy ensures consistency in the use and management of CIs and
serves as a guide for inexperienced investigators.
The department must establish investigator-informant contact procedures and train employees
in their use. Investigators must keep their relationships with CIs strictly professional.
C. Other Sources for Information
Patrol officers are a valuable asset to narcotics investigators, and every effort should be made
by investigators to foster a good relationship with them.
One of the best sources of information for investigations is the drug unit’s own police
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department.
D. Surveillance
Surveillance, defined as the “surreptitious observation of persons, places, objects, or
conveyances for the purpose of determining criminal involvement,” is an excellent tool used
by narcotics investigators to gather information about a suspect. Before any type of
surveillance begins, officers should have already gathered basic information about a suspect.
Searching through discarded trash is another supplement to surveillance. Trashing, as it is
sometimes called, does not require a warrant, because there is no expectation of privacy with
discarded trash that is essentially in plain view for all to see.
E. Undercover Operations
These operations are very dangerous and can take a large toll on the personal lives of
undercover officers. However, they are quite useful in identifying participants in drug
conspiracies, whether they involve manufacturers, distributors, or users. Buying drugs from a
suspect is the best means of gathering evidence about a drug operation. Drug buy operations
by undercover officers generally fall under one of four categories.
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The “flash” is a large quantity of money that an undercover officer shows to a suspect without
actually giving it to them. Flash busts require extensive training and a consistent policy on the
part of police departments and should only be attempted by experienced undercover officers.
F. Drug Canines
Drug dogs are extremely useful to narcotics investigations; a positive alert by a canine can
G. Field Testing
A variety of field-testing kits are available to law enforcement to give valuable clues about the
H. High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) Programs
High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) programs are an invaluable resource to
XIII. Searches, Seizures, and Warrants
Drug investigations are useless without evidence. Therefore, it is vitally important that an
investigator be knowledgeable of the latest legal guidelines that govern the search for, and
seizure of, evidence.
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A. Probable Cause
The general requirements for searches and seizures of evidence or persons are a search
B. Search Warrants
The warrant authorizes searches of homes, businesses, and automobiles of subjects and
C. Past Reliability of the Confidential Informant
The past reliability of the confidential informant is of considerable importance, especially
when the effort to determine probable cause to obtain a search warrant is based exclusively on
such information.
D. Information Supplied by the Informant
Information to be considered in this area includes the date, time, and place of the meeting
E. Corroboration of the Information Supplied
All efforts should be made to corroborate information supplied by a confidential informant.
F. The Exclusionary Rule
This rule states that courts will exclude any evidence that is obtained in violation of the
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G. Warrantless Searches
There are cases where warrants are not necessary, although these are each fairly narrowly
H. Search Procedures
Once a search begins, narcotics officers should survey the entire site and make a
determination as to the best way to conduct the search, keeping the legal aspects of searches
I. Evidence Handling
Aside from the burglaries, larcenies, and other crimes committed because of narcotics,
additional related problems sprout from the drug-culture vine. One offshoot, the handling and
securing of narcotics and dangerous drugs after they are collected and seized, has emerged as
an area of growing concern to police administrators for a number of reasons.
J. Pharmaceutical Diversions
The diversion of pharmaceutical drugs is considered an increasing problem within the drug
enforcement community, especially with the popularity of narcotic drugs such as OxyContin.
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There are generally four types of doctors who divert drugs. The first is the dishonest
physician, who profits from the illegal sale of controlled substances. The second is the
XIV. Clandestine Drug Laboratories
Clandestine drug laboratories throughout the United States produce a variety of illegal drugs
for sale and distribution. Raids conducted on clandestine drug laboratories are inherently
dangerous, irrespective of the dangers associated with taking suspects into custody.
A. Identifying Laboratory Operations
Clandestine laboratory operations are typically identified in one of four ways. Evidence of
B. Meth Labs
Meth labs have been around since the 1960s, when they were organized and operated by
outlaw motorcycle gangs. A new method for producing meth without the elaborate
C. Catching Cooks: Meth Monitors
After the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 was enacted, the availability of
ingredients used in the manufacture of methamphetamines became much more difficult to
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D. Lab Seizure and Forfeiture
Laboratory operators may be arrested under a wide variety of circumstances, only the most
typical of which are discussed here. Most laboratory operations are closed as the result of
E. Conducting a Laboratory Raid
Conducting a raid on an occupied laboratory requires careful planning. Normally, a planning
XV. Conspiracy Investigations
A conspiracy is defined as two or more people entering into an agreement to violate the law with
a commission of one or more overt acts in furtherance of the agreement. Drug investigators
undertake conspiracy cases when they desire to get the leaders of a drug organization who may
XVI. Gangs and Drugs
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XVII. Paradigm Shift
At this point in U.S. history, a paradigm shift in drug interdiction may be on the horizon. The
current administration has begun to consider drug use in this country as a public health issue