IRM 8-1
Chapter 8: Victimized Children
from Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology, 10e by Andrew Karmen
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
L02. Summarize the rediscovery of the plight of missing children from the twentieth century to present
times.
L04. Discuss the long-term impact of suffering maltreatment as a child.
L06. Explain the controversy surrounding recalling repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse.
L08. Identify child-centered legal reforms implemented in the family court and criminal justice system.
L10. Define statutory rape.
LESSON PLAN
Correlated to PowerPoints
I. The Ongoing Debate between Maximalists and Minimalists [Learning Objective 1]
A. Maximalists versus Minimalists
1. Maximalists
2. Minimalists
3. Best not to view disputes personally but as a result of different information,
assumptions, or socioeconomic interests
II. Missing Children
A. The Rediscovery of the Plight of Kidnapped Children [Learning Objective 2]
1. Demanding ransom or transporting across state lines is a federal crime.
3. In the 1980s, kidnapping was rediscovered and subsumed under the catchphrase
missing children.
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4. Box 8.1 lists developments that marked the rediscovery of missing children
problem.
B. Fears and Confusion Prevails in the Absence of Data
1. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) does not include crimes
committed against those under 12 years.
3. National Incident Based Record System (NIBRS) keeps track of kidnappings
under “crimes against persons.”
4. In the early 1980s, maximalists argued that kidnappings were rampant and
5. Statistical data varied widely.
a. Actions defining kidnapping varied widely.
b. Some missing children were considered runaways, throwaways, or
parental abductions.
What If Scenario
Imagine that you have been tasked with finding a middle ground between the maximalists and minimalists on the issue of
kidnapping. Where would you begin? What importance would you place on statistical data and on anecdotal data? Do you
think your goal can be achieved? Explain your reasoning.
Class Discussion/Activity
Many people believe that it is a waste of time for criminal justice officials to search for missing children who turn out to be
runaways or throwaways. Do you agree with this assessment? Explain your reasoning.
C. Estimates of the Incidence and Seriousness of the Disappearance Problem
1. The Department of Justice (DOJ) has funded research projects to clarify
definitions, collect data, and generate estimates.
2. “Missing children” has many categories including the following:
a. Kidnapping by strangers with ransom demands
3. A 2011 National Incidence Study of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and
Throwaway Children (NISMART)–3 study found four subcategories of
kidnapping:
a. Sexually motivated kidnappings
i. Sixty-three percent of all kidnappings
b. Ransom-motivated kidnappings
d. Intent to keep kidnappings
i. Eight percent of all kidnappings
4. Box 8.2 details how often children are kidnapped and what happens to them.
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5. Studies of the 105 kidnapping cases in 2011 show the following:
a. Over 80 percent of the captives were girls.
Media Tool
All the Money in the World
-A full-length film on the kidnapping of John Paul Getty III and his grandfather’s refusal to pay the ransom
-Discussion: Why do you think the kidnappers chose Getty III? Why was there concern about the validity of the
kidnapping and of the ransom demands? How were the victims in this scenario affected by the kidnapping? How might this
case have affected subsequent kidnapping cases?
Class Discussion/Activity
What are the ramifications of focusing on strangers as offenders in kidnapping crimes? What are the ramifications of
focusing on family members?
D. Hunting for Children Who Have Vanished
1. Before 1990, parents had to appeal for police help in finding missing children.
2. In 1990, Congress passed the National Child Search Assistance Act.
a. Prohibited waiting periods before entering child’s description into the
3. National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) links agencies
and operates a hotline and a cold-case unit.
E. The Amber Alert System
1. It began in the late 1990s and is included in all 50 states.
3. Goal is to scare off would-be offenders and rescue children quickly.
5. Table 8.1 shows the accomplishments of the Amber Alert system from 2005 to
2016.
a. 2,400 alerts were issued.
b. Twenty-two percent of alerts lead to rescues.
c. Five percent of alerts ended with children who perished.
d. Amber Alerts are decreasing dramatically.
Media Tool
My Story by Elizabeth Smart
-A book written by a woman who survived a kidnapping and subsequent abuse
-Discussion: Why does Smart feel it important to discuss the entirety of her victimization with the world? Smart was
missing for a great deal of time. What does her rescue mean to families of kidnapped youngsters and to those in the criminal
justice system?
F. Protecting Children from Kidnappers
2. Risk-reduction strategies involve planning, products, and services.
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a. Homing devices, microchips, fingerprinting, sketch artists
b. Code Adam responses in shopping centers
3. Minimalist skeptics cite potential social and psychological costs of such
measures.
See Assignment 1
Media Tool
Adam and Adam: His Song Continues
-Television features on the abduction and murder of a six-year-old boy and his father’s fight to create an FBI
database
-Discussion: Who are the victims in these stories? What changes in kidnapping procedure does John Walsh propose?
How have these changes affected kidnapping cases today?
III. Physically and Sexually Abused Children
A. The Rediscovery of Child Abuse [Learning Objective 3]
fit.
2. House of Refuge movement arose in the early 1800s to intervene.
4. Pediatric radiologists encouraged legislation against battered-child syndrome in
1962.
5. In 1974, Congress passed the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, which
prohibited the following:
6. Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003 broadened the definition of
7. Child welfare organizations are overburdened and underfunded.
a. From 2008 to 2013, 785 children died while monitored by child
protective services (CPS).
Class Discussion/Activity
Did you find it surprising to learn that the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was formed before the Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Children? Why or why not?
B. How Children Suffer [Learning Objective 4]
1. Physically and sexually abused youngsters suffer in many ways.
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c. Emotional and physical illnesses
2. Sexually exploited youngsters are prone to seven groupings of adverse effects.
a. Affective problems (guilt, fear, anger)
f. Psychopathological repercussions (neuroses, character disorders)
g. Age-inappropriate sexual knowledge, talk, and involvements
4. Children who were abused often grow up to abuse or be delinquent.
See Assignment 2
Media Tool
Something about Amelia
-A television feature on the psychological trauma of family incest
-Discussion: Who are the victims in this film? What effects does the incest relationship have on each family
member? This was the most-watched television movie in 1984. What long-lasting effects might it have had?
What If Scenario
Assume you work as a detective in the special victims unit. One of your recent arrests involves an abuser who tells you that
he was once abused. How does this affect your viewpoint? Do you believe him to be a victim as well? Explain your
reasoning.
C. Estimates of the Incidence, Prevalence, and Seriousness of Child Abuse [Learning Objective 5]
1. Government data come from the National Incidence Study (NIS) of Child Abuse
and Neglect.
2. Official statistics come from National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System
(NCANDS).
D. Maximalist versus Minimalist Approaches to the Seriousness of the Problem
1. Maximalist arguments
a. Child abuse is common and should be taken more seriously.
b. One out of four children has been neglected or abused.
c. Assume statistics are gross underestimates of the true emergency.
i. Many episodes go unreported.
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2. Minimalist views
a. The definition of child maltreatment has expanded and been diluted.
b. Some aspects (emotional and educational abuse/neglect) are too vague
and subjective to guide corrective actions.
c. The number of unsubstantiated reports is increasing.
i. Mandatory reporting and heightened public awareness
3. Trends in the rate of child abuse
a. Figure 8.1 shows the maltreatment rates from 1990 to 2016.
i. NIS data show 44 percent drop in sexual abuse and 23 percent
drop in physical abuse.
ii. NCANDS data show a similar downward trend.
b. Figure 8.1 shows that fatal maltreatment rates are increasing.
c. Social factors contributing to abuse and neglect are related to poverty
and governmental inaction.
What If Scenario
Imagine that you have been tasked with finding a middle ground between the maximalists and minimalists on the issue of
child maltreatment. Where would you begin? What importance would you place on statistical data and on anecdotal data? Do
you think your goal can be achieved? Explain your reasoning.
E. Differential Risks Children Face of Being Maltreated
1. Geography is a risk factor for child fatality.
2. NIS and NCANDS data show those facing the highest incidences of
maltreatment are the following:
a. Girls
b. African-Americans
c. From impoverished homes
g. Living in rural areas
3. Researchers seek to prevent maltreatment before it happens.
F. The Suffering of Sexually Abused Children
2. Forty-five thousand children were sexually abused in 2016.
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3. Four controversies surrounding childhood sexual abuse include the following:
a. Parent–child incest, especially during custody battles
4. Accusations made during divorce proceedings and custody battles
a. Maximalists argue that incestuous relationships are hidden unless parents
separate.
b. Minimalists argue that baseless allegations are taken too seriously.
G. The Furor over Recalling Repressed Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse
[Learning Objectives 6 and 7]
1. In the early 1900s, Freud believed that women suffering from emotional
2. In the 1980s, a memory recovery movement reemerged.
3. Maximalists contended that this was a common problem.
4. In most states, the statute of limitations for felonies is five to seven years
following the crime.
a. Those with recalled memories must file claims in civil court.
5. Minimalists question the methodology of the new psychological diagnoses.
a. Argue that interventions create pseudomemories from the therapist’s
6. Arguments between maximalists and minimalists grew heated in the 1990s.
Research proved the minimalists correct.
7. Sexual abuse of children by religious figures, teachers, and others in positions of
trust
a. In the 1970s and 1980s, accusations of abuse by religious figures grew.
b. Maximalists predicted the numbers of abused youth to be greater.
i. Some received monetary settlements from civil lawsuits.
c. Minimalists argued that some accusers were seeking money via civil
lawsuits.
i. Wondered if the entire Roman Catholic priesthood was being
unfairly maligned (constituted 4 percent of the entire group)
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See Assignment 3
Class Discussion/Activity
How might the sexual abuse by religious figures have different ramifications for children, their families, and their
congregations? How effectively have the various religious organizations addressed the abuses? What else could/should be
done?
H. Strange Allegations of Child Sexual Abuse during Rituals
1. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, maximalists argued secret cults made tens of
thousands of people disappear.
2. Minimalists insisted that the public was overreacting to exaggerated claims.
a. Some were accused of being secret Satanists.
IV. Abused Children and Legal Proceedings [Learning Objective 8]
A. Taking into Account the Best Interests of the Child
1. Abused children need advocates during legal proceedings.
a. Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974 required a guardian
2. In cases of child abuse, two official responses are possible.
a. View parental wrongdoers as dysfunctional and in need of rehabilitation
B. The Credibility of Children as Witnesses
1. Skepticism has occurred since Salem witch trials.
2. Children are immature, which creates cognitive limitations.
a. Undermine their credibility
3. Two points of view regarding credibility
a. Pro-prosecution/Pro–victim “believe the children” view
4. Children are considered competent witnesses unless there is an evidence to the
contrary.
C. Devising Child-Friendly Practices
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1. Some states bar courtroom spectators during a child’s testimony and limit
information provided by the media.
2. Sixth Amendment guarantees the defendant’s right to confront accusers.
3. Special exceptions are there to the hearsay rule.
4. Since the 1970s, investigators can use anatomically detailed dolls so that children
can demonstrate what happened.
6. According to the funnel model, child abuse trials and adult incarceration are rare
events.
See Assignment 4
V. Proactive versus Reactive Strategies
A. Proactive approaches include the following:
1. Screening child care workers, improving training of investigators
3. Preventing the abandonment of unwanted babies via safe haven laws
B. Reactive approaches include the following:
2. Viewing children as junior citizens—government agencies assume parental roles
as a last resort
VI. Additional Forms of Exploitation and Mistreatment of Young People [Learning Objectives 9 and 10]
A. Sibling Abuse
1. This is the most frequent yet least studied form of assault.
3. All-boy families are most violent of all.
4. Younger child generally remains silent.
B. Abuse of Adolescents by Parents
2. Adolescents are not viewed as vulnerable or defenseless.
4. Daughters tend to run away, become sexually active, or take drugs.
C. Statutory Rape of Minors
1. It’s often overlooked due to absence of data and presence of willing victims.
2. Ninety-five percent of cases fit the stereotype: exploitive older males taking
advantage of teenage girls.
See Assignment 5
What If Scenario
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IRM 8-10
Assume one of your teenaged friends tells you that he is being repeatedly assaulted by his brother. Would you immediately
believe this to be a case of sibling abuse? Explain your reasoning. Now assume one of your young adult friends tells you he is
having sexual intercourse with a new girlfriend, who happens to be 16 years old. What advice would you give to your friend?
LECTURE NOTES
Infants, toddlers, children, and even teenagers are especially vulnerable to victimization by their
caretakers: parents, older siblings, stepparents, babysitters, teachers, and acquaintances. If the offenders
are arrested, children face special problems when their cases are processed by the legal system—and these
problems require imaginative yet constitutional solutions.
The extent and prevalence of childhood victimization brings about a heated debate between the
maximalist, alarmist point of view and the minimalist, skeptical perspective. In general, the maximalist
position argues that an overlooked problem is reaching epidemic proportions. The minimalist perspective
public needed to be warned and mobilized. Minimalists suspected the true scope of the problem was
blown out of proportion by frantic parents who meant well but were unduly alarmed. The public’s fears
were stoked by businesses that sought to profit from selling products and services to panicky adults;
journalists who were willing to sensationalize stories to attract larger audiences; politicians who were
looking for a get-tough issue that no one would dare to oppose and would gain them publicity and votes;
and child-search organizations who were seeking recognition, private contributions, and government
funding.
Efforts to determine the scope of the missing child problem were made difficult by poor record-keeping
practices and unclear definitions. Some missing children were considered runaways, throwaways, or
victims of seizure by a noncustodial parent. The DOJ since has funded research projects to clarify
definitions, consult with experts, collect data in different ways, and generate better estimates of children
missing due to foul play. A 2011 NISMART–3 study found four subcategories of kidnappings: sexually
motivated kidnappings (63 percent), ransom-motivated kidnappings (12 percent), rage-motivated
kidnappings (8 percent), and intent to keep kidnappings (8 percent). Further, of the 105 kidnapping cases
studied, over 80 percent of the captives were girls and 62 percent of the captors were young, single, male
strangers.
Few victims’ rights organizations have been so instrumental in the drafting of new laws and the early
IRM 8-11
In addition to kidnapping, physically and sexually abused children were rediscovered. For centuries,
parents were able to beat their children—their property—as they deemed allowable. If that discipline
exceeded acceptable limits, parents were charged with cruelty to children. It was not until the early 1800s
that the House Refuge movement intervened and removed abused children from their homes. Seventy-
Maximalists argue that child abuse is common, affecting one in four children, and that statistics
underestimate the true emergency. They assert that many episodes go unreported (abusive punishments
are the norm in some families) and many reports are disregarded by police departments and other
governmental screening agencies. Minimalists contend that the definition of child maltreatment has
expanded to the point of dilution and that the number of unsubstantiated reports of abuse is increasing.
research would prove the minimalists correct. The third controversy concerns sexual abuse by religious
figures, teachers, and other trusted adults. In the 1970s, reports began to circulate about religious figures
who took advantage of their positions of authority and trust to sexually exploit members of their flock.
During the 1980s, a number of adults identified themselves as survivors of sexual abuse carried out by
pedophile priests within the Roman Catholic Church. Maximalists predicted the number of affected youth
IRM 8-12
family courts, and the juvenile justice system. Cases involving very serious charges are brought to
criminal court.
As key witnesses for the prosecution, youngsters often find the setting to be hostile and the proceedings to
be confusing, hard to fathom, and frightening. Courts now arrange for a guardian ad litem (GAL) to look
back can be charged with assault. Finally, statutory rape of minors is a common crime without much
statistical backing and a clear-cut definition.
KEY TERMS
Amber Alert: An emergency response system that sends out information about a missing child via media
partners with the goal of scaring off would-be offenders and/or of rescuing children quickly.
plea negotiation, trial) until there are very few left at the end of the process—leading to incarceration in
jail or prison.
guardian ad litem (GAL): Court-appointed special advocates for abused children, providing support and
advice during legal proceedings.
House of Refuge movement: A social movement of the early 1800s that sought to intervene on behalf of
IRM 8-13
inveiglement: The use of trickery or manipulation to entice someone into an action.
maximalist: An ideology that argues that a problem is more widespread and intense than most people
realize.
minimalist: An ideology marked by a skeptical stance that tends to doubt maximalist claims about scope
assaults.
ransom-motivated kidnappings: The abduction of a child in an effort to exhort money, drugs, or
valuables, usually from the victim’s parents.
safe haven law: State laws that allow parents to relinquish unwanted newborns with no questions asked
to prevent infanticides. Parents do not face criminal prosecution if the infant is healthy and handed over to
responsible adults at safe haven sites.
SAID syndrome: The nickname of those who experienced “sexual allegations in divorce.” Their
contention was that a spiteful mother pressured her daughter to falsely accuse the father of molestation in
ASSIGNMENTS
1. With a small group of classmates, research two current programs that address the problem of missing
2. Examine how child abuse and neglect are handled in your community by interviewing a police
officer, a social service worker, and several parents. What similarities and differences did you find in
their viewpoints? Why might these differences exist? If there is cause to rectify these differences,
3. Perform a content analysis of stories of repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse written in the
last six months. How were these cases handled by the media? How were they handled by the criminal
4. Individually or with a small group of classmates, develop a brochure aimed at the court system
detailing ways to ensure the entire process protects child victims. Use as much statistical detail as
5. Perform a keyword search of news articles for sibling abuse and statutory rape. How many stories did
you encounter for each topic? Why might this be so? Describe what forms sibling abuse takes in the
MULTIPLE CHOICE ANSWER KEY
Chapter 8 You Decide: Interacting with Child Advocacy Center Professionals: The Decisions of a
Child Sex Crimes Investigator
Children who experience victimization often do not report it, nor is it reported for the child by an adult.
For the child, the experience may be repressed and he or she may not become aware of it until years
later, if at all. Even when a child reports a victimization, obtaining a conviction is not a certainty
because of the difficult evidentiary challenges that a child victim presents to the system.
The central issue in this scenario examines the decision-making of a Child Sex Crimes Investigator
and introduces the notion of a Child Advocacy Center as a systematic method of structuring
investigations of child sexual abuse.
You are a detective for a sheriff’s office in a large city assigned to the crimes against children
division. As the name implies, your job involves investigating crimes that have been committed
against child victims within your county. Your agency uses a multidisciplinary team approach
when investigating child abuse–meaning that members of law enforcement (such as yourself), child
protective services, the district attorney’s office, and medical doctors all come together and assist
Let’s review two concepts before you make a decision about this scene.
Question 1
IRM 8-15
It is important to protect the interest of the child in instances where the child will provide testimony. The
law has recognized that it is not sufficient to rely on a staff member of the prosecuting attorney’s office.
The position of the person who is appointed to look after the interest of the child is called what?
a. guardian ad litem
b. the judge
c. next of kin advocate
d. child advocacy center advocate
Question 2
When criminal justice system agents collect evidence in child sex assault cases, it is possible that the
collection of the evidence is harmful to the child. For this reason, it is important for investigators to
consult with a person appointed to protect the interests of the child. This particular role of the appointed
person is for what purpose?
a. Protect against system-induced trauma.
b. Assist in the preparation of the victim impact statement.
c. Accompany the child to functions of the justice system.
d. Make mental health referrals.
What Would You Recommend?
The only known witness to the alleged crime is the child victim. No medical evidence is obtained to
support the allegation, making the child’s testimonial evidence exponentially important. The CAC
utilized by your agency has two services available to obtain testimonial evidence from the child
victim.
IRM 8-16
The first service is known as a forensic interview. It is a one-time interview with the child. The child
will speak with a trained forensic interviewer who has expertise in the application interview
protocols and will speak to the child victim to obtain statements in a neutral and objective manner.
The purpose of the interview is to elicit detailed information from the child, assess safety, refute or
corroborate the allegations of abuse, and assess the need for any care or treatment the child may
before discussing the allegations of abuse. Extended forensic assessments are typically considered
for children with developmental delays or disabilities, or those who are especially anxious or
frightened of the interview process.
A guardian ad litem (GAL) has already been appointed in the case. In these instances, you will need
to make a recommendation to the GAL and work with the appointed person to decide how to
proceed.
What would you recommend?
a. Refer the child for a forensic interview. While the child is only four years old, you are relatively
confident that he will handle the one-time interview without incident and will be comfortable talking to
You make the decision to refer the child for a forensic interview. While the child initially displays
some hesitancy and reluctance to speak to the forensic interviewer, the interviewer takes time to
develop a rapport with the child during the initial stages of the interview. During the disclosure
Let’s review two more concepts before you make another decision about this scene.
Question 3
What is a tactic commonly utilized by those who sexually abuse children that involves very subtle
coercion, persuasion, or manipulation called?
IRM 8-17
b. SAID syndrome
c. pseudo memories
d. funnel mode
Question 4
Based on research surrounding sexual abuse of children, which of the following statements is NOT
correct?
a. Children who are sexually abused are most commonly abused by strangers.
b. Estimating the prevalence of sexual abuse is difficult due to underreporting.
c. Children that grow up in poverty are more likely to be victims of sexual abuse.
d. Sexual abuse of children often occurs in tandem with other forms of abuse, violence, and crime.
What Would You Do?
The child has disclosed and confirmed to a forensic interviewer that he was the victim of sexual
abuse. As a detective, you must now decide of how to proceed with the case and the filing of formal
charges.
Child sexual abuse cases can be the some of the most difficult cases to investigate, because they
often rely solely on the testimonial evidence of the child victim. While the victim in this case