IRM 6-1
Chapter 6: Victims and the Police
from Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology, 10e by Andrew Karmen
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, the student should be able:
L02. State what the criminal justice system can accomplish on behalf of victims.
L04. Identify circumstances where victims and law enforcement agencies can find themselves in conflict.
L06. List the features of a victim-centered police department.
LESSON PLAN
Correlated to PowerPoints
I. Introduction Learning Objective 1
A. Functionalist perspective versus conflict perspective
1. FuctionalistFunctionalist perspective argues that strong social institutions are
2. Conflict perspective argues that lawbreakers are protesting societal injustices.
a. Political and economic reforms are needed to curb violence.
b. Criminal justice system acts in their own interest and in that of the
privileged elite.
II. Victims Interacting with the Criminal Justice System: Cooperation or Conflict? [Learning Objective 2]
A. Critics agree that the criminal justice system needs change but disagree over reforms.
1. Box 6.1 lists criticisms voiced over the years.
B. What Would Be Ideal?
1. Helpful police, swift indictments, conviction, fair sentences, restitution
2. Victims often find themselves in conflicts with police, prosecutors, judges,
wardens, and parole boards.
See Assignment 1
Media Tool
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IRM 6-2
“Criminal Law Reform” (https://www.aclu.org/issues/criminal-law-reform)
-The American Civil Liberties Union’s (ACLU’s) website page dedicated to issues regarding reform of the criminal
justice system
-Discussion: Describe two of the current reform issues the ACLU is studying. How are they attempting to influence
the general public? How are they trying to influence system officials? How would you describe their odds of success?
III. What Do Victims Want: Punishment? Treatment? Restitution? [Learning Objective 3]
A. Victims’ rights movements seek empowerment—input into the process.
1. Victims pursue one or more goals.
2. Victims prefer rehabilitative treatment over punishment by a 2 to 1 margin.
B. Make “Them” Suffer
1. Two-thirds of victims of violent crimes report social and emotional problems.
Most want victims to suffer similarly.
2. Society assumes punishment curbs future criminality.
a. The perpetrator learns a lesson and is deterred from further crime.
b. The punishment warns would-be perpetrators away from crime.
Media Tool
The Brave One
-A full-length movie about a robbery victim turned vigilante
Eye for an Eye
-A full-length movie about the mother of a raped and murdered girl
-Discussion: Describe the ways in which each victim suffered. How did they endure a second wound from police?
Compare and contrast the reactions of law enforcement to vigilantism? What do the endings of these movies say about
society’s view of vigilantism?
C. Make “Them” Get Treatment
1. Some victims endorse treatment and rehabilitation so that offenders return to
2. Many citizens are disenchanted with rehabilitation—“nothing works.”
3. Reentry into the community is a long-term strategy that benefits both victims and
society.
D. Make “Them” Pay for Losses and Expenses
2. Victims want criminal justice officials to take effective actions in response to
crime.
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IRM 6-3
A. Reporting Incidents
1. Authorities want victims to report, identify, and testify.
2. Reporting rates vary.
a. Auto theft has the highest reporting rate; household property valued
3. Reporting rates are supposed to trend upward.
a. Progress seems to have stalled.
4. Most victims are not legally obligated to inform police about crimes.
a. Cover-ups may lead to charges of misprision of a felony.
5. NCVS uncovered differential reporting rates.
a. More incidents are reported by females, blacks, young victims, urban
6. Reporting rates may vary based on the relationships between law enforcement
and the community they serve.
a. Makes city-to–city comparisons difficult for violent crime (other than
murder)
7. Reporting rates create contradictory pressures.
a. Police departments want victims to report crimes, but those reports may
make the departments look inept.
b. Commanding officers want a steady stream of cases but not so many as
to be overburdened and ineffective.
i. Compstat aids in evaluation of police performance.
8. Police increasingly encourage immigrant victims to report.
See Assignment 2
Class Discussion/Activity
With a group of classmates, create a list of reasons as to why immigrant victims may not report crimes. Then create a second
list of ways police departments can work to eliminate these barriers. Share your lists with the class.
B. Responding Quickly
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1. NCVS findings suggest that victims are dissatisfied with response times.
3. Response time depends upon the following:
a. Travel time
b. Delays in reporting crimes in progress
c. Availability of patrol officers
C. Handling Victims with Care
1. People who bring problems to police stations want procedural justice.
a. They expect calmness and consolation.
b. They are vulnerable to a second wound.
2. Many officers are inept at delivering bad news like death notifications.
Class Discussion/Activity
Victimologists refer to poor police communication and behavior toward victims as secondary victimization. What are the
particular harms a victim may experience with a bad police encounter?
What If Scenario
With your classmates, assume the roles of police officer and victim. First, attempt to deliver bad news without causing
second wounds. Then, attempt to administer psychological aid. Discuss your results with the class. What aspects of the
notifications were hardest? Why? What kinds of training would be beneficial?
D. Challenging the Victim’s Version of Events [Learning Objective 4]
1. Police must maintain a healthy skepticism until victims pass a credibility test.
2. Some real victims make fraudulent claims for ulterior motives.
3. Two categories of errors are possible when handling complaints:
4. Hoaxes can be damaging to race relations.
5. False claims may be made to commit insurance fraud.
7. Detectives may have motive to defound and unfound complaints.
8. In most states, those who knowingly file false claims are breaking the law. Those
who unknowingly do so are immune from prosecution.
Media Tool
“Police Say Woman Admits to Killings as Bodies of 2 Children Are Found Inside Car”
(https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/04/us/police-say-woman-admits-killings-bodies-2-children-are-found-inside-her–
car.html)
-A digitized article from the New York Times about a false claim of carjacking
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IRM 6-5
-Discussion: This case is quite old but is often referenced when discussing false claims. Why do you think that is?
How do you think Susan Smith’s false claims affected those working in the criminal justice system? How might the details
she manufactured have affected race relations in the area/the country?
What If Scenario
Are victims’ demands of police departments unrealistic? Hold a classroom debate arguing the perspectives of the victims and
of the police departments (e.g., resources and personnel).
E. Investigating Complaints and Solving Crimes [Learning Objective 5]
1. The UCR publishes clearance rates for the seven index crimes.
a. Cases are solved when they are closed—suspects are in custody and
2. UCR clearance rates indicate effectiveness of police departments.
3. Victims want crimes solved because it means
a. justice has been served
4. Table 6.2 shows clearance rates from 1953 to 2016.
a. Police solved more violent crimes in 2016.
5. Some police forces are better than others.
6. Wide rages in clearance rates are due to the following:
7. Of solved homicides, 50 percent are closed in one week, 93 percent in one year.
a. Cold case squads work on old, unsolved serious crimes.
i. Detectives come and go.
ii. Eyewitnesses may come forward.
iii. Crime partners may become cooperative.
Class Discussion/Activity
Why are crimes more difficult to clear today than 30 years ago? How might recent technology advances assist in increasing
clearance rates?
F. Arresting Suspects
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IRM 6-6
1. Police are under no obligation to tell complainants their rights—names and badge
2. Victims become upset when a claim is deemed to too minor to merit attention.
3. Many cases are closed even if they remain unsolved. Victims have limited
recourse.
4. Arrests are never automatic.
a. Victims may try to convince judges to issue arrest warrant based on their
sworn complaints.
b. Victims may exercise a citizen’s arrest.
i. Generally discouraged
ii. Can lead to civil lawsuits
G. Recovering Stolen Property
1. Recovery rates are not routinely tabulated and published by the police or FBI.
3. Table 6.4 shows the recovery rates of stolen property from 1996 to 2016.
4. Authorities have the right to hold seized items of value during ongoing
investigations and trials.
See Assignment 3
Class Discussion/Activity
Citizen’s arrests often are featured in programs of entertainment—television, movies, books. Research how often citizen’s
arrests actually occur in your area. Under what circumstances do citizen’s arrests seem logical and feasible? What are the
problems inherent in such actions?
H. Measuring Progress toward a Victim-Oriented Police Department [Learning Objective 6]
1. Community policing creates a more victim-oriented approach within law
enforcement.
2. Victim-oriented departments
a. Extend outreach efforts to neighborhood residents to build confidence in
police services
b. Facilitate the process for lodging complaints
c. Handle victims with care and compassion
See Assignment 4
What If Scenario
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IRM 6-7
Assume you are tasked with creating a victim-oriented police department. To whom would you turn for advice? How would
you structure the department? How would you measure your efforts?
LECTURE NOTES
Criminologists study the operations of the criminal justice system. They investigate how the criminal
justice system handles offenders—suspects, defendants, convicts, probationers, inmates, and parolees.
Victimologists explore how the system handles victims: how the police respond to complainants; how
prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges treat these witnesses for the state; and how corrections,
probation, and parole officials react to special requests by victims.
Sociologists who analyze social institutions choose from two competing paradigms. Those who use the
functionalist perspective point out the criminal justice system is supposed to serve as the first line of
joined the chorus of critics calling for change. However, there is disagreement over how to reform the
system.
Instead of seeking to reform, the victims’ rights movement has sought empowerment. This means the
ability of victims to have some input into important decisions at every step in the criminal justice process,
from initially filing a complaint with the police up to the release of the offender from custody, or
probation, or parole. Empowerment would enable the injured parties to exercise their agency—taking
actions in pursuit of outcomes that embody their sense of fair play, self-interest, and desire for closure.
Victims can pursue one or a combination of three distinct goals, including (1) seeing to it offenders who
act as predators are punished (retribution); (2) having experts help wrongdoers become decent,
productive, law-abiding citizens (rehabilitation); and (3) seeking to be repaid for monetary losses and/or
injuries (restitution).
Law enforcement agencies are the first representatives in the criminal justice system that victims
encounter in the immediate aftermath of crime. If their cases are not solved with an arrest, then police
officers in metropolitan areas and sheriff’s departments in rural areas will be the only criminal justice
professionals with whom victims have contact.
Criminal justice authorities want people to report crime. Officials fear if potential offenders believe their
intended victims won’t complain to the authorities, then the deterrent effect of the risk of getting caught
IRM 6-8
such as screams for help in the night or concerns about prowlers or shots fired—merit a higher priority
than calls about cars that have disappeared from their parking spots. Detectives need the continuing
cooperation of persons who have reported crimes, for without their help, these cases will be more difficult
to solve. Two areas of conflict between victims and the police can arise at the complaint investigation
were harmed by criminals for a number of reasons.
Unfounding is a process in which the police reject a person’s claim about being harmed by a criminal as
unbelievable or at least improvable in court. Defounding means detectives believe an offense really did
take place but it was not as serious as the complainant described it.
When victims formally lodge complaints, they expect action in the form of a thorough investigation
also experienced the aggravation of learning that no one was apprehended for accosting them.
Besides catching culprits, the police can satisfy victims’ needs by recovering their stolen items. While
police departments and the FBI do not tabulate recovery rates, the UCR notes the overall dollar value of
recovered stolen goods. For example, in 2016, police recovered 55 percent of the value of stolen cars.
Sadly, trend analyses indicate that both property recovery and arrest rates have been declining over the
past few decades.
Community policing and a commitment to performance measure study have created a more victim–
KEY TERMS
burnout: A mental or physical breakdown due to stress.
IRM 6-9
citizen’s arrest: An arrest made of someone who is not a member of law enforcement using whatever
force necessary to prevent the suspect from escaping until the police arrive to take charge of the situation.
clearance rates: Arrests made for crimes as computed and published by the FBI’s annual UCR.
Compstat: An approach pioneered by the New York Police Department that uses up-to-date computer-
generated statistics to evaluate police performance.
conflict perspective: A sociology model that asserts that societies are not built on consensus but are held
together by exploitive, oppressive, and unjust social arrangements that produce ongoing conflicts between
various groups.
defounding: A process in which detectives believe an offence really did take place, but it was not as
serious as the complainant described.
differential reporting rates: The rates denoting which groups of victims are more or less likely to bring
their problems to the attention of the authorities.
functionalist perspective: A sociology model that stresses that a harmonious society requires consensus,
cooperation, equilibrium, balance, order, continuity, and effective mechanisms of formal and informal
social control.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Interview a victim of a property crime and a violent crime. Did the victim report the crime to the
2. Interview a police officer about victim suffering and relations. Develop a set of five questions from
information in this chapter. Turn in a transcript from this interview along with your analysis of what
3. Analyze the current websites for three police departments—that in your hometown, a large city, and a
rural area. Create a chart to compare information, answering the following questions: What
IRM 6-10
information is available for victims? Navigate the sites to determine its ease or difficulty for victims,
especially recent immigrants. What barriers (e.g., transportation, language requirements, employment
hours) exist for victims hoping to receive services? What performance measures are included on the
4. Develop a resource booklet for a specific group of victims in your local area. For example, where can
victims of robbery go for assistance with financial compensation, hospitalization costs, or counseling?
MULTIPLE CHOICE ANSWER KEY
Chapter 6 You Decide: Police Officer Decision-Making in a Domestic Violence Case
It is important that potential victims of a crime feel that they can approach police and report possible
crime to police without feeling that police are dismissive of their claims or don’t believe them. Police
are, however, confronted with situations where they do not believe an alleged victim’s story or believe
that the facts are being exaggerated. Defounding is when a police officer believes that a crime has
occurred to harm the purported victim but that the seriousness of the offense is less than what is
reported by the purported victim. Unfounding is when a police officer rejects the purported victim’s
claims about the event as either unbelievable or not provable in court.
As you arrive, you see a male exit the townhouse in question, so you and your partner approach
and detain the man for questioning. He offers no resistance and begins to talk. You notice a small
gash above his right eye that is a fresh wound and is bleeding. You motion to your partner that you
will go in the townhouse and talk with any other occupants, after you notice an adult female looking
out the window.
You talk to the female and she says that she told her husband that she bought a new dress for a job
interview that she has the following day. She tells you that her husband got annoyed and verbally
Let’s review two concepts before you make a decision about this scenario.
Question 1
IRM 6-11
Sometimes when a police officer speaks to an alleged victim, the officer believes a crime occurred but
also believes that the crime was not as serious as the purported victim has described. This is called
_______.
a. defounding
b. unfounding
c. hoaxing
d. manipulation
Question 2
Sometimes when a police officer speaks to an alleged victim, the officer believes that the story told is not
accurate or not probable in court. This is called _______.
a. unfounding
b. defounding
c. hoaxing
d. manipulation
What Would You Do?
The husband is calm and methodically answering questions. He says that he questioned whether his
wife’s purchase of a new dress as necessary and that he didn’t even want his wife working because,
IRM 6-12
“Who’ll take care of my kids then?” He says his wife became belligerent and screamed that she
would not live a life of being “barefoot and pregnant” and that she “came at him.” He then grabbed
her hard by the arm to “keep her off me.” When “she came at me again,” he says he pushed her
down. He said his wife grabbed a figurine and hit him on the head.
Neither party has a criminal record.
What would you do?
a. You conclude that the wife is the primary aggressor, that her story is unfounded, and you arrest her.
Let’s review two more concepts before you make another decision about this scene.
Question 3
Which of the following is a term to describe when a crime victim is made to feel worse when an officer is
perceived to be dismissive of or callous toward a person who is reporting a crime?
a. second wound
b. dismissive wound
c. contamination
d. primary wound
Question 4
Which of the following is a defense mechanism and a part of the working personality of police officers
where the danger of the job produces a need to maintain objectivity in the face of complicated situations
and conflicting witness accounts?
IRM 6-13
a. distancing
b. burnout
c. paramilitary reaction
d. contamination
What Would You Do?
You have the discretion and must decide whether to arrest the husband, too.
While the conclusion that the wife was the primary aggressor in this case is supported by the
objective evidence, you and your partner do not necessarily feel “right” about it. While
interviewing her, you had the feeling that this was a genuine, but emotional, person. Your “gut
What would you do?
a. Arrest the husband. It is better to make a mutual arrest and leave it to the prosecutor to make a decision
to drop charges than it is to leave a false impression that the case is “clear cut” when it is not.
Summary A
You and your partner decide to arrest the husband. You’ve heard other officers talk about
“distancing” themselves from cases and the need to decide only on the basis of objective facts,
rather than an emersion into subjective interpretations of what may have happened. Your partner
discussed the matter privately and made the case that something just doesn’t feel right about
arresting the wife and not arresting the husband in this case. Your partner told you that his “gut” is