Counseling Chapter 2 Irm The Rediscovery Crime Victims From Crime Victims Introduction Victimology Andrew

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Chapter 2: The Rediscovery of Crime Victims

from Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology, 10e by Andrew Karmen

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completing this chapter, the student should be able to:

L01. Explain how reforms of the criminal justice system in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries

impacted the role of victims in the legal process.

L03. Describe what exemplary behavior under duress looks like.

L05. Explain the possible roles of bystanders who witness a crime in progress.

L07. Discuss the rediscovery of groups of victims in contemporary times.

LESSON PLAN

Correlated to PowerPoints

I. The Discovery, Decline, and Rediscovery of Crime Victims [Learning Objective 1]

A. History

1. Laws identify wrongdoers and injured parties, meaning victims of street crimes

were “discovered” several thousand years ago.

2. Historically, small villages engaged in victim-oriented justice via compensation

of valuables from the wrongdoers.

Public prosecutors took over the powers and responsibilities of victims.

6. Over the last 200 years, government has provided for criminals and ignored

victims.

7. Plea negotiations cost victims their participation in court proceedings.

See Assignment 1

B. The Process of Rediscovery

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2. Elected officials, the media, and commercial enterprises also helped.

II. Victimology Contributes to the Rediscovery Process

A. History

2. Victimology was first used in a book written by a psychiatrist.

4. Benjamin Mendelsohn was deemed “the father of victimology.”

6. By the 1970s, victimology was a recognized field of study.

Class Discussion/Activity

How has the modernization of society impacted the decline as well as the reemergence of victims?

B. Rediscovering Exemplary Behavior under Extremely Difficult Circumstances

1. Criminologists study predators at their worst. Victimologists study victims at

their most vulnerable.

2. Victimologists study “exemplary behavior under duress” and a range of possible

C. Rediscovering Survivors Whose Resilience after a Vicious Attack Is Inspiring

1. Victimologists study “exemplary behavior after harm is inflicted.”

2. Resilient victims serve as positive role models.

D. “Survivorology”: Toward a More Upbeat Focus within Victimology [Learning Objective 4]

2. Victimology focuses on pain, hostility, and recriminations. Survivorology

3. Resilience is an emotional muscle to be strengthened at any time.

See Assignment 2

Class Discussion/Activity

What If Scenario

You have been tasked with helping recent crime victims learn to stretch their resilience “muscles.” What kinds of behaviors

would you suggest? How would you propose victims go about changing their attitudes?

1. Bystander involvement dates back to biblical “Good Samaritans.”

2. It regained attention in 1963 after a rape in New York City.

4. Bystanderology involves criminal, victims, and third parties.

5. Bystanders react in one of the two general ways:

6. Research is needed to determine the most likely bystander reactions.

7. Bystander reactions may shape crime outcomes. When bystanders intercede,

victims rate them as helpful.

8. Bystander effect finds that as the number of bystanders increases,

a. the likelihood of intervention decreases.

9. In all but three states, bystanders have no legal obligation to intervene.

See Assignment 3

Media Tool

“Step Up—American University” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=491e8Oku0Jw)

–A short video about the bystander intervention program adopted by American University

-Discussion: Why do you think bystanders fail to intervene when witnessing crimes on college campuses? Do you

think college students suffer from the bystander effect? Will efforts like these affect the way bystanders behave?

What If Scenario

You are sitting in the waiting room at your doctor’s office. It’s very crowded. Nearby a parent berates her child and then

proceeds to spank him. You notice bruises on his torso. What options do you have as a bystander? Which one are you most

likely to choose?

Class Discussion/Activity

How would you estimate the percentage of bystander intervention violent crimes compared to nonviolent crimes? What

would account for the difference?

III. Other Groups Propel the Rediscovery Process Forward

A. Social Movements: Taking Up the Victims’ Cause

1. Victims’ movement emerged in the 1970s to provide support and empowerment.

2. Two forms of advocacy developed:

3. Major sources of inspiration, guidance, and support came from the following:

a. Law-and-order movement of the 1960s

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b. Women’s movement

i. Focused on females harmed by males and not provided support

by the male-dominated justice system

4. Additional contributions by other social movements include the following:

a. Civil liberties movement has benefited victims in two ways:

i. Furthering police professionalism via higher educational and

training requirements

ii. Extending the doctrine of “equal protection under the law” to

redress grievances

b. Children’s rights groups successfully campaigned for

i. Stricter reporting requirements of suspected abuse

ii. Improved procedures for arrest, prosecution, and conviction of

offenders

iii. Greater sensitivity to the needs of children as witnesses

iv. Effective parenting instruction programs

c. Awareness of the problem of elder abuse

d. Gay rights movement focuses on preventing hate crimes against

individuals because of their sexual orientation.

e. Self-help movement created support systems by incorporating help from

those who experienced harm firsthand.

f. Prisoners’ rights movement fought for better living conditions and

subsequently brought focus around to victims’ rights.

B. Elected Officials: Proposing and Enacting Pro-Victim Legislation [Learning Objective 2]

1. Pro-victim initiatives intend to reduce suffering and facilitate recovery through

2. Antivictim policies put victims’ needs last or neglect their needs entirely.

3. Enacting laws named after victims garners media support and boosts reelection

potential.

a. The Brady Bill (Handgun Violence Protection Act) requires criminal

background checks for handgun purchases.

b. The Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus

c. The Emmett Till Unresolved Civil Rights Crime Act set up a cold case

unit for reinvestigation of bias-motivated murders committed before

1970.

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e. The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act strengthened sex

4. Two conclusions about rediscovery of victims by elected officials can be drawn.

a. Headline-making tragedies are the final straw, focusing attention on a

1. Victimologists must view all legislation impartially to determine effectiveness.

See Assignment 4

Media Tool

Without Warning: The James Brady Story (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKg9YLrN2_0)

–A movie featuring based on the true story of James Brady, the press secretary to Ronald Reagan

-Discussion: How does the story of Jim Brady’s recovery efforts affect your perception of the Brady Bill? Does this

story effectively vilify opponents of the bill?

Class Discussion/Activity

Research Kate’s Law. What claims do the proponents and critics of the law make? Is this law pro–victim? Was it passed to

alleviate the victims’ plight or to further a political agenda?

B. The News Media: Portraying the Victims’ Plight

2. Victims often complain about sensationalism, which exploits their plight.

3. Intense coverage requires atypical circumstances.

5. The public’s right to know about a crime and the media’s right to report it clash

with the victim’s right to privacy. Three approaches to curb abusive coverage

include the following:

a. Laws to shield identifying victim information

Class Discussion/Activity

Discuss a group of crime victims not covered in the book. Describe the kinds of secondary victimization this group might be

experiencing from the media.

C. Commercial Interests: Selling Security Products and Services to Victims

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1. Profiteers can engage in fear mongering and false advertising to prey upon the

vulnerable.

2. Victimologists must represent the public interest and demand proof of product or

service claims.

II. Rediscovering Additional Groups of Victims [Learning Objective 7]

A. Rediscovered Groups Receiving Study and Support

1. Abused children, battered women, females suffering date rape, kidnapped

2. Students shot in high schools and colleges, employees subjected to workplace

1. Disabled victims, innocent bystanders caught in crossfire, homeless victims,

hotel guests, cruise ship passengers, delivery drivers, prostitutes, etc.

2. Box 2.6 includes a comprehensive list.

See Assignment 5

What If Scenario

Choose a group from the list in Box 2.6 whose plight is currently being rediscovered. As a victimologist, pose questions you

and fellow researchers ought to examine. Provide a summary of the group including its composition, the nature of its losses,

and efforts underway to address the harm.

III. The Rediscovery Process in Action, Step by Step [Learning Objective 6]

A. The rediscovery process has far-reaching consequences for everyday life. Victims with

public backing can

2. Argue for reforms of the criminal justice system

3. Argue for a change in cultural values to prevent further harm

B. Stage One: Calling Attention to an Overlooked Problem

2. Activists then function as inspiration for self-help group formation. Activists

argue that

3. Activists and self-help groups then form coalitions.

4. Stage one involves the social construction of a social problem, claims-making,

and typification.

C. State Two: Making Progress, Implementing Reforms

2. Government and/or private funding is secured.

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4. Best example of a rediscovery campaign is Mothers Against Drunk Driving

(MADD).

Media Tool

“White House Safety Datapalooza: Mothers Against Drunk Driving Infographic Challenge”

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbxUy6L__6Y&t=0s&list=PLCP5RMeFs0LnIL7lgw6T7jSEMYMB8cUwj&index=5)

-A short video featuring Jean Withers, president of MADD

-Discussion: How does Jan Withers’ personal story affect the viewer’s mind frame? Why do you think she leads

with her story? What reforms does she propose? Why does she ask for public involvement in MADD’s upcoming campaign?

What If Scenario

Assume that you believe that victimology would be enriched by expanding its boundaries to include global studies of

D. Stage Three: Emergence of an Opposition and Development of Resistance to Further

Changes

2. Spokespersons and advocates are criticized for overestimating the threat,

ignoring victim culpability, and making unreasonable demands.

4. Victim’s movements may

a. Undermine humane treatment of offenders

1. Victimologists can objectively arbiter disputes about crime prevention and

treatment.

3. Some types of victimization recede from public concerns and reemerge, starting

the four-stage cycle anew.

4. Victimologists can analyze data to

a. Put public fears into perspective

b. Attempt resolution of ongoing controversies

See Assignment 6

LECTURE NOTES

Each law that prohibits a certain act as being harmful defines the wrongdoer as a criminal subject to

punishment and specifies the injured party is a victim deserving some sort of redress. Laws forbidding

what are now called street crimes can be traced back to biblical times. When the 13 American colonies

were settled by immigrants from Great Britain, the earliest penal codes were based on religious values as

well as English common law.

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In past centuries, victims played a leading role in the resolution of criminal matters. To discourage

retaliation by victims and their families, societies in simpler times established direct repayment schemes.

Over time, industrialization and urbanization impacted the traditions and beliefs that were the foundation

of victim-oriented justice.

wants were systematically overlooked.

Studying the plight of victims benefits the social scientists and victimologists by gaining insights into

everyday life, solving puzzling and troubling issues, better appreciating life’s subtleties, seeing

phenomena more clearly, and understanding complex situations more profoundly. This study can also

shed light on how miscommunication, misunderstandings, desires, obsessions, demands, stereotypes,

The potentially upbeat tendency within victim knowledge could be termed survivorolgy. Researchers and

the general public can find the outlooks and actions of certain exemplary individuals who have suffered

through shocking ordeals to be admirable, uplifting, and even inspiring. The more survivorology is

developed, the less victimology will dwell on suffering and negativity.

Bystanderology, an emerging field of study, focuses on the contextual factors introduced by the presence

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regain control over their lives through practical assistance, mutual support, and involvement in the

criminal justice process.

The law-and-order movement gained strength in the 1960s as many Americans became alarmed at rising

crime rates and dissatisfied with a system that seemed to favor the offenders. In late 1976, the women’s

experienced similar harms firsthand. The gay rights movement fought for the prevention of hate crimes.

Finally, the prisoners’ rights movement argued for better living conditions in prison and, in a roundabout

way, brought focus back to victims’ rights.

During the 1980s, officials engaged in the political process of enacting new laws helped to rediscover and

publicize the plight of innocent victims. They realized naming a proposed new law after someone who

Enforcement to the casualties of crimes “that never should have taken place” because the offenders

should not have been able to gain entrance into the United States.

The news media deserve a great deal of credit for rediscovering victims. In the past, offenders received

the majority of media coverage, but now those on the receiving end of criminal behavior are no longer

“invisible” or forgotten. Details about injured parties are routinely included in coverage to inject some

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information, self-restraint on the part of reporters and editors, and the adoption of a professional code of

conduct for the media.

Commercial interests also have benefits and drawbacks for the victims’ movement. The emerging market

of protective services and antitheft devices meets consumer needs but also can exploit the market through

knowledge of the pain and suffering that accompany it. Once self-help groups are formed,

coalitions are created.

• Stage Two: Making Progress, Implementing Reform. To further the cause, pilot programs

may be created to prove the need for special services. Other agencies then copy successful

models and take over some responsibilities. For instance, after activists created shelters and

rape treatment centers, some local governments began funding safe houses where women and

their young children could seek refuge, and hospitals organized their own 24-hour rape

hotlines and crisis-intervention services.

KEY TERMS

bias crimes: Crimes, ranging from harassment and vandalism to arson, beatings, and slayings, motivated

by the perpetrator’s hatred of the “kind of person” the victim represents.

Brady Bill: Passed in 1993, the Handgun Violence Protection Act imposes computer-based FBI criminal

background checks on anyone who seeks to buy a firearm from a federally licensed dealer, in a stepped-

up attempt to protect the public from individuals deemed to be dangerous. It is named for James Brady,

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civil liberties movement: An effort to preserve the constitutional safeguards and due process guarantees

that protect suspects, arrestees, defendants, and prisoners from abuses of governmental power by

overzealous criminal justice officials.

civil rights movement: An effort since the 1950s to aid people of color who were victims of intimidation,

believes happened.

Good Samaritan: A term dating to biblical times that refers to a helpful person.

law-and-order movement: An effort to protect society and control the street crime prevalent in the

1960s through swift, sure punishments for criminals and social and political deviants.

Megan’s Law: A New Jersey law that mandates that convicted sex offenders register with their local

audiences, which enables media enterprises to charge advertisers high rates. Sometimes called scandal-

mongering, pandering, yellow journalism, and tabloidism.

street crimes: Legally defined as murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, and theft.

survivorology: The study of personality traits, coping skills, inner resources, and belief systems that

enable individuals who have endured shattering experiences to emerge from a period of bereavement,

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survivorology: An emerging branch of victimology that focuses on individual character traits and other

sources of resiliency that enable certain victims to recover from their ordeals in exemplary ways.

tort laws: Civil laws that govern wrongful acts from which injury occurs.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. With a group of classmates, create a list of five ways in which victims can be included in the plea

2. Describe a recent news story that you believe exemplifies survivorology and/or resilience. Would you

3. Compare and contrast Good Samaritan laws with duty to rescue laws in the United States. Organize a

debate with your classmates about whether or not bystanders should be required to call for emergency

4. Research a proposed or recently passed law in your state named in honor of a crime victim. Write a

mini-policy proposal where you analyze whether this current legislation offers specific redress or

assistance for victims (outside of increased penalties for offenders). After analyzing the current

policy, offer suggestions for how this policy could be rewritten to address the harm experienced by

5. Using the Internet, research crimes against one of the groups of recently rediscovered victims from

Box 2.6. Then, write a proposal for legislation that offers specific redress or assistance for these

6. What social movements in your local area address crime victimization? Using the steps in this chapter

on the process of discovery, illustrate how this particular social movement came to frame the issue of

MULTIPLE CHOICE ANSWER KEY

Chapter 2 You Decide: Understanding and Using Information on Bystanderology

Recently, social scientists and victimologists have begun to examine the responses—or lack thereof—of

people who witness the commission of crimes. Bystanderology is a relatively new area of study

examining the various reactions and interactions between offenders, victims, and onlookers. For

example, according to the bystander effect, as the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood that

any individual will intervene decreases.

The central issue in this scenario revolves around the practical application of trying to understand the

actions—or inactions—of those individuals who observe criminality.

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You are investigating a brutal domestic violence case. According to the initial patrol report, the

incident started at the apartment complex’s community pool area where multiple witnesses

observed the alleged perpetrator, Gavyn Edgar, shoving and pulling his wife as they argued about

their finances. Later, witnesses reported seeing Mrs. Edgar fleeing her husband and running to

their apartment. Mr. Edgar reportedly followed, and inside their apartment, the attack continued

Let’s review two concepts before you make a decision about this scenario.

Question 1

Bystanderology refers to the study of the interaction __________.

a. between offenders, their intended targets, and onlookers

b. between witnesses of crimes

c. of testifying witnesses of crimes

d. between victims and offenders

Question 2

According to research on the bystander effect, in which of the following scenarios would bystander

intervention most likely occur?

a. two bystanders witness an assault

b. five bystanders witness an assault

c. ten bystanders witness an assault

d. fifteen bystanders witness an assault

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Answer: A

a. Correct. The bystander effect finds that as the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood that any

individual will intervene decreases. With only two bystanders there is greater likelihood that one of the

individuals will perceive an obligation to intervene. See “Victimology Contributes to the Rediscovery

Process,” LO5, Bloom’s: Remember

b. Incorrect. The bystander effect finds that as the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood that any

individual will intervene decreases. With five bystanders the likelihood that these bystanders perceive that

the obligation to intervene falls to someone else increases. See “Victimology Contributes to the

Rediscovery Process,” LO5, Bloom’s: Remember

c. Incorrect. The bystander effect finds that as the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood that any

individual will intervene decreases. With 10 bystanders diffusion of responsibility to someone else is

heightened to a point that intervention is less likely. See “Victimology Contributes to the Rediscovery

Process,” LO5, Bloom’s: Remember

d. Incorrect. The bystander effect finds that as the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood that any

individual will intervene decreases. With 15 bystanders present, there is a low probability that any one of

these bystanders will intervene. See “Victimology Contributes to the Rediscovery Process,” LO5,

Bloom’s: Remember

What Would You Do?

Due to the publicity surrounding the case and the interest in the action and inaction of the

bystanders, the mayor’s office gives you funding to help you with your investigation and research.

The goal of your research is to gain an understanding of the bystander effect in the attack and to

potentially make recommendations for future community education. You begin to examine the best

way to collect information. With limited resources, it’s not feasible to gather information from all of

the bystanders that witnessed the attack. You must decide on whether to focus your efforts towards

interviewing Mr. Harding who actively intervened and effectively ended the attack or to

interviewing some of the witnesses that failed to intervene during Mrs. Edgar’s assault.

What would you do?

a. You decide to interview Mr. Harding to understand what caused him to intervene. You believe

Mr. Harding agrees to meet with you once you explain that you are collecting information for

research purposes as part of a mayoral initiative to potentially make recommendations for

community education.

Mr. Harding tells you that on the afternoon of the assault, he arrived home and thought something

in the complex might be “off” as there were several neighbors gathered outside of his building,

whispering to each other. As he was walking up the stairs to his unit, he heard a single scream but

initially dismissed it as children playing. However, after hearing an additional scream followed by a

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was able to subdue him by placing him in a headlock until the police arrived. Harding says he

intervened because he knew there was someone that needed help right away and felt he had to help.

Let’s review two more concepts before you make another decision about this scene.

Question 3

Which of the following terms refers to an intervention by onlookers, and is counted on by some

victimization prevention strategies?

a. capable guardian

b. active Samaritan

c. informed observer

d. concerned bystander

Question 4

Which of the following describes why a bystander may be slow or reluctant to become involved, and

explains that an onlooker assumes that someone else will take charge of the situation and take the first

step?

a. diffusion of responsibility

b. audience inhibition

c. refusal of acknowledgement

d. passive obligation

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d. Incorrect. When bystanders become reluctant to become involved because they assume that someone

else will take charge of the situation, this is known as diffusion of responsibility, not passive obligation.

See “Victimology Contributes to the Rediscovery Process,” LO5, Bloom’s: Understand

What Would You Do?

After completing the interview with Mr. Harding, you carefully compile the information he

provided from his interview along with the content from the case file. What stands out to you most

about Harding’s interview is his repeated acknowledgement that he knew by the sounds he was

hearing and the concerned looks of his neighbors that something was wrong and required

intervention. You think that the best information that can be gleaned from this scenario is that

education needs to be provided about the severity of domestic violence situations and how the

victims of such crimes rarely seek help on their own. You must now make a decision about what

you should do with the information you collected.

What would you do?

a. You make a recommendation to the mayor to develop a program aimed at educating community

members about the importance of calling 911 if they believe someone may be in danger. You believe that

the information you gathered is sufficient to support the need for spreading this message and could have a

Summary A

The data you compiled through the use of available funding, while limited, assists with developing a

community outreach program aimed at targeting local citizens. Along with several local community

leaders as well as the support of the mayor, you help disseminate the important message of calling

911 if someone is in danger. The program incorporates the story of first responders and witnesses

from the event involving the Edgars and is well received by local citizens.

Summary B

The mayor agrees that given the number of variables present in each case, a further investigation of

the bystander effect in your community is warranted. You apply for and are awarded additional

funding which you use to investigate other cases in your jurisdiction that contain evidence of the

bystander effect. Eventually, you notice a recurring theme–that local citizens often hesitate to call

911 when they witness an adult in immediate danger (your research shows you this is not the case

for other scenarios, such as those involving children). You present your additional findings to the

mayor. Along with several local community leaders, you help disseminate the important message of

calling 911 if an adult is in danger. The program educates community members about the

reluctance of adult victims to report victimization to police due to shame or fear of retribution from

the offender. The program incorporates the story of first responders and witnesses from the event

involving the Edgars and educates citizens about the sometimes tragic results of these cases. The

program is well received by local citizens.