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Chapter 14
Computers, Technology, and Criminalistics in Policing
Learning Objectives
LO1 List the major uses of computers in police departments today and discuss some of the
controversy surrounding their implementation.
LO2 Discuss the importance of fingerprint technology as applied to law enforcement.
LO3 Explain why the use of less-than-lethal weapons can be seen as both necessary and
dangerous.
LO4 Identify examples of how modern technology has changed police surveillance practices.
Lesson Plan
Correlated to PowerPoints
I. Computer Technology in Policing
Learning Objective 1: List the major uses of computers in police departments today and discuss
some of the controversy surrounding their implementation.
• Computers today have become more geared toward law enforcement, giving them more
See Assignment 1
A. Computer-Aided Dispatch (CAD)
2. Enhanced CAD (Enhanced 911, or E911)
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a. When a person calls 911 for assistance, vital information is
immediately flashed on a screen in front of the operator
3. Cell Phone Technology
5. IP Telephony
a. Internet Protocol (IP) telephony: a collection of communication
technologies, products, and services that can facilitate
communication across diverse systems
b. Voiceover IP (VoIP): a subset of IP telephony and is a set of
5. Reverse 911 (R911): a way for the police to contact the community by telephone
in the event of an emergency or serious situation, by a simple digital click
B. Automated Databases
1. National Crime Information Center (NCIC)
3. Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (ViCAP)
5. Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)
C. Automated Crime Analysis (Crime Mapping)
1. Automated crime analysis entails the collection and analysis of data regarding
2. Regional Crime Analysis Geographic Information Systems (RCAGIS) Spatial
Analysis
a. A computer program to help police locate crime hot spots, spatially
relate a list of potential suspects to actual crimes, profile crime
geographically to identify where a serial criminal most likely lives,
and even forecast where the next crime in a series might occur
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What If Scenario
You are a deputy assigned by your Sheriff to locate crime hot spots in your county and develop a
plan to address these crime problems. What will you do to forecast and address these problems?
D. Computer-Aided Investigation (Computer-Aided Case Management)
Class Discussion/Activity:
Computer-aided investigation is a technology that helps assist in the investigation of crimes.
How does this program work?
See Assignment 2
1. Computer-aided investigation and computer-aided case management: the use of
computers to perform case management and other functions in investigations
3. Home Office Large Major Enquiry System (HOLMES)
5. Real Time Crime Center (RTCC)
E. Computer-Assisted Instruction
2. Firearms Training System (FATS): a computer-driven laser disk mechanism used
to train police officers to make decisions in life-threatening situations
3. VirTra Systems 300 LE simulations provide officers with realistic firearms
F. Administrative Uses of Computers
2. Automated Clerical Processing Systems
4. Patrol Allocation Design
G. Computer Networks and the Internet
1. Allows users from many different areas to communicate with one another and
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H. Mobile Technology
1. Give patrol officers the tools they need to function as if they were in an office
while remaining out in the community performing police work
3. License plate recognition (LPR) technology
II. Fingerprint Technology
Learning Objective 2: Discuss the importance of fingerprint technology as applied to law
enforcement.
A. Basic Categories of Fingerprints
Class Discussion/Activity:
What are the two basic categories of fingerprints? Discuss them.
1. Inked prints or ten-prints: the result of the process of rolling each finger onto a
ten-print card using fingerprinting ink
3. Classifications
4. Types
B. Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)
2. Live Scan: an optical fingerprint scanning system
4. Identification Based Information System (IBIS)
6. Repository for Individuals of Special Concern (RISC)
7. Facial Recognition
C. Automated Palm Print Technology
1. Captures the four core areas of the palm and converts them into data for storage in
a palm print repository
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III. Less-than-Lethal Weapons
Learning Objective 3: Explain why the issue of less-than-lethal weapons can be seen as both
necessary and dangerous.
A. Chemical Irritant Sprays
1. Chemical irritant sprays are handheld liquid products that contain the active
ingredients of cayenne pepper, or CS or CN tear gas.
B. The Taser and Other Stun Devices
See Assignment 3
1. Taser: a handheld electronic stun gun that discharges a high-voltage, low-
amperage, pulsating current via tiny wires and darts, which can be fired from as
far as 15 feet away
Media Tool
“LA Times – Stun Guns”
http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-stun-guns-police-killings-20140825-
story.html
o Article: Stun guns not a cure-all for police shootings, experts warn.
o Discussion: Discuss the article. What are the issues in this article? Do you believe stun
guns are effective? What are the dangers of their use?
2. Beanbag gun: produces a velocity of 320 feet per second within a range of a few
inches to 30 feet away with nonlethal force
C. Safety and Effectiveness of Less-than-Lethal Weapons
What If Scenario
You have been assigned by your lieutenant to research less-than-lethal weapons for your
department use. What weapons are available and how would you use them if needed?
IV. Surveillance Technology
Learning Objective 4: Identify examples of how modern technology has changed police
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surveillance practices.
A. Surveillance Vans
B. Vehicle Tracking Systems
2. Cellular tracking systems
3. Global positioning system (GPS) tracking systems
See Assignment 4
C. Night Vision Devices
1. Thermal imaging (TI), a sophisticated form of infrared technology, does not
require any light at all
D. Global Positioning Systems
Class Discussion/Activity:
Vehicle tracking devices are becoming more common. What has the court ruled on the
constitutionality of these devices?
1. When GPS is combined with geographic information systems (GIS) and
2. GPS is also used for crime mapping, tracking, and monitoring the location of
probationers and parolees around the clock.
What If Scenario
You are a sergeant in a mid-sized agency. Your chief has asked you to develop a policy for the
use of GPS by your department. In light of recent Supreme Court decisions that have put controls
on the use of GPS, what will your policy emphasize and why?
E. Surveillance Aircraft
2. Do not require extensive landing fields
3. Drones: also called unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV): Unmanned aircraft piloted
F. Electronic Video Surveillance
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2. Can be actively monitored by security personnel
G. Cell Phone Technology and Searches
2. Pen Registers
4. E911 pings
6. Stingrays/IMSI Catchers
V. Advanced Photographic Techniques
Learning Objective 5: Explain how modern photographic techniques can solve crimes.
A. Digital Photography
B. Aerial Photography
1. Extremely useful in documenting certain scenes and their evidence, such as large
outdoor crime scenes and vehicle crash scenes
3. Adds a dimension of visual reference
C. Mug Shot Imaging
1. A system of digitizing a picture and storing its image on a computer so that it can
D. Age-Progression Photographs
What If Scenario
You have been assigned the task of researching the Internet for programs to assist your agency in
creating age-progression photographs for missing persons. Research the Internet for the types of
programs available to law enforcement and prepare a comparison of the programs and a
recommendation.
1. Two medical illustrators, Scott Barrows and Lewis Sadler, developed techniques
2. Today, thanks to a computer algorithm, the same process that used to take hours
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using calipers, ruler, and pen can be completed in seconds.
E. Composite Sketches
1. Portrait-style drawings generally require hours of interview, drawing, and
revision.
3. Hand-drawn sketches are seen as having the ability to include subtleties that
VI. Modern Forensics or Criminalistics
Learning Objective 6: Describe modern forensics, including the CSI effect and how it affects
criminal cases and court trials, the functions of crime labs, and the need for rigorous
accreditation policies.
A. Definitions
1. Forensic science: that part of science applied to answering legal questions
2. Criminalistics: brand of forensic science that deals with the study of physical
evidence related to crime
B. The CSI Effect
Class Discussion/Activity:
What is the CSI effect? Discuss it.
2. People are demanding today to see what they see on TV.
4. On a positive note, the CSI effect is leading many high school and college
students to take forensic science or criminalistics courses and prepare for careers
in the field.
C. The Modern Crime Lab
Media Tool
“Inside the FBI’s Crime Lab”
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5t7PNpNTZm8
o Video: The FBI Laboratory is a division within the United States Federal Bureau of
Investigation that provides forensic analysis support services to the FBI, as well as to state
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and local law enforcement agencies free of charge. The lab is currently located at Marine
Corps Base Quantico in Quantico, Virginia. Opening November 24, 1932,[2] the lab was
first known as the Technical Laboratory.
o Discussion: Discuss this video. What does this say about the FBI Crime Lab? What is the
purpose of the FBI Crime Lab? How many crime lab units are there at the Lab? Discuss
your findings with the class.
1. Ballistics
3. Criminalistics
a. Glass
b. Hairs and Fibers
c. Fingernail Scrapings
f. Document Analysis
g. Carbon-14 dating
D. Crime Lab Accreditation
Class Discussion/Activity:
Discuss the U. S. Supreme Court decision Bullcoming v. New Mexico. How will this decision
change law enforcement? What are the positive and possible negatives of the decision?
1. Designed to ameliorate some of the problems raised earlier in this chapter
regarding mistakes made by our nation’s crime labs
3. The American Board of Criminalists (ABC) certifies lab employees
E. Computer/Digital Forensics
1. The science of identifying, collecting, preserving, documenting, examining,
3. Computer hacking
a. Phishing: fraudulently acquiring private or sensitive information using
computer program expertise and techniques
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program that when opened infects the target computer(s) and then searches for
sensitive data.
c. Spyware: computer software that collects personal information, changes
See Assignment 5
3. Cell phones: cell phone seizure devices should be a crucial component of the
forensic examiner’s toolkit
VII. DNA Profiling
Learning Objective 7: Summarize the historical and current use of DNA profiling in policing.
A. The Science of DNA
Class Discussion/Activity:
Define DNA and discuss the accuracy of the results of genetic fingerprinting (DNA profiling).
1. Every cell of the body contains DNA.
3. Restricted fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), an earlier DNA procedure
required dime-size samples.
5. Combined DNA Index System (CODIS): database that contains DNA profiles
6. National DNA Index System (NDIS): final level of CODIS that supports the
sharing of DNA profiles from convicted offenders and crime scene evidence
submitted by state and local forensic laboratories across the United States
B. History of DNA in U.S. Courts
1. The Castro case
3. The Jakobetz case
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5. The National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence was created in 1998 to
examine the future of DNA evidence and how the Justice Department could
encourage its most effective use
C. Current Technology
D. DNA Databases
E. Other Current DNA Issues
1. Backlog
3. Cold Hits
See Assignment 6
4. DNA Storage
6. DNA Dragnets
7. Familial DNA Searches
a. Familial DNA analysis: a technique whereby a crime scene profile is
8. Exonerations
a. Innocence Project: A national litigation and public policy
9. Use in Property Crimes
10. DNA profiling, also called genetic fingerprinting or DNA typing, has shown
exponential progress in the last decade in helping investigators solve crimes and
ensuring that those guilty of crimes are convicted in court. However, significant
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Media Tool
“The Innocence Project”
http://www.innocenceproject.org/about/
o Article: About the Innocence Project
o Discussion: Discuss what you read in the article. Discuss your view of the innocence
project. Do you believe they are an organization law enforcement should support? Why or
Why not?
VIII. Advanced Technology
Learning Objective 8: Identify and discuss some of the advanced technology available to law
enforcement.
A. Biometric Identification
B. Purposes of biometric systems
1. Identification
2. Authentication
C. Types of biometric systems
1. Fingerprints
3. Hand-geometry systems
5. Facial recognition
D. In-Car and Body-Worn Cameras
1. 71 percent of all local law enforcement us body-worn cameras on a regular basis
3. In-car video recorders provide reliable, unbiased evidence
E. Robotics
1. The science of using robots to perform operations formerly done by human beings
IX. Concerns about Technology and Civil Liberties
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A. Civil liberties
1. Some fear that technological developments, such as improved computer-based
X. Summary
Lecture Notes
1. What are less-than-lethal weapons?
Police departments are using technological devices to stop and disable armed, dangerous, and
violent subjects without resorting to the use of firearms. The term less-than-lethal weapons, or
2. How has the computer revolutionized policing?
The criminal justice system and the police in particular have benefited greatly from the
technological revolution. In 1964, only one city in the United States had a computer system in its
3. What is DNA profiling?
DNA profiling, also called genetic fingerprinting or DNA typing, has shown exponential
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4. How has crime lab accreditation helped enhance the credibility of crime labs?
Crime lab accreditation is designed to ameliorate some of the problems associated with mistakes
made by our nation’s crime labs. The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors
(ASCLD) is a nonprofit professional society of crime laboratory directors, devoted to the
Key Terms
age-progression photos Photo systems that show changes that will naturally occur to the face
automated crime analysis The automated collection and analysis of data regarding crime
(when, where, who, what, how, and why) to discern criminal patterns and assist in the effective
automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS) Fingerprinting innovation begun in the
1980s in which a print technician can enter unidentified latent fingerprints into a computer. The
computer automatically searches its files and presents a list of likely matches. (p. 481)
biometric identification Automated identification systems that use particular physical
characteristics to distinguish one person from another; can identify criminals or provide
cold hit A DNA sample collected from a crime scene that ties an unknown suspect to the DNA
profile of someone in the national or a state’s database. (p. 515)
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) Database that contains DNA profiles obtained from
subjects convicted of homicide, sexual assault, and other serious felonies. (p. 510)
composite sketches Sketches prepared by forensic artists or by automated means of people
computer-aided dispatch (CAD) System that allows almost immediate communication between
the police dispatcher and police units in the field. (p. 466)
computer-aided investigation/computer-aided case management The use of computers to
perform case management and other functions in investigations. (p. 471)
computer/digital forensics The science of identifying, collecting, preserving, documenting,
examining, analyzing, and presenting evidence from computers, computer networks, and other
criminalistics A branch of forensic science that deals with the study of physical evidence related
CSI effect The phenomenon in which the popularity of the television series CSI: Crime Scene
Investigation and its spin-offs makes the public and jurors believe that the police can do what
their television counterparts can. (p. 499)
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) The basic building code for all of the human body’s
DNA profiling/genetic fingerprinting/DNA typing The examination of DNA samples from a
body fluid to determine whether they came from a particular subject. (p. 508)
drone/unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) Unmanned aircraft piloted remotely, used for
familial DNA analysis A technique whereby a crime scene profile is deliberately run through
the offender databank in the hopes of getting a list of profiles that are genetically similar to the
DNA evidence and using this information as an investigative lead to interview family members
of the near matches. (p. 516)
forensic science That part of science applied to answering legal questions. (p. 497)
Frye test Standard to admitting new scientific evidence into U.S. courts; based on the U.S.
global positioning system (GPS) A satellite system used to locate any position on the map. (p.
Innocence Project A national litigation and public policy organization dedicated to exonerating
wrongfully convicted people through DNA testing and reforming the criminal justice system to
Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) A system for searching an
individual’s fingerprints against a computerized database of fingerprints. (p. 482)
Internet Protocol (IP) telephony A collection of communication technologies, products, and
services that can facilitate communication across diverse systems. (p. 468)
latent prints Fingerprint impressions left at a crime scene. (p. 479)
less-than-lethal weapons Innovative alternatives to traditional firearms, such as batons, bodily
force techniques, chemical irritant sprays, and Tasers or stun guns. (p. 485)
license plate recognition (LPR) technology Employs cameras and computer software to discern
the letters and numbers of vehicle license plates and then compares them with records contained
in state and federal databases, including department of motor vehicles and NCIC records. (p.
Live Scan The electronic taking and transmission of fingerprints as opposed to traditional ink
mitochondrial DNA (MtDNA) analysis DNA analysis applied to evidence containing very
small or degraded quantities from hair, bones, teeth, and body fluids. (p. 510)
mobile digital terminal (MDT) A device put into a police vehicle that allows the electronic
transmission of messages between the police dispatcher and the officer in the field. (p. 467)
mug shot imaging A system of digitizing a mug shot picture and storing its image on a
National Crime Information Center (NCIC) Computerized database of criminal information
National DNA Index System (NDIS) The final level of CODIS that supports the sharing of
DNA profiles from convicted offenders and crime scene evidence submitted by state and local
forensic laboratories across the United States. (p. 510)
night vision devices Photographic and viewing devices that allow visibility in darkness. (p. 490)
phishing Fraudulently acquiring private or sensitive information using computer program
expertise and techniques. (p. 507)
polymerase chain reaction-short tandem repeat (PCR-STR) One of the latest DNA
technology systems; requires only pinhead-size samples rather than dime-size samples needed
ransomware Cyber attack that locks up files and requests a fee (ransom) to get them back with
threat of destruction of files if not paid. Payment is usually in Bitcoin. (p. 508)
Regional Crime Analysis Geographic Information Systems (RCAGIS) spatial analysis
Computer programs to help police locate crime “hot spots,” spatially relate a list of potential
suspects to actual crimes, profile crime geographically to identify where a serial criminal most
likely lives, and forecast where the next crime in a series might occur. (p. 471)
restricted fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) Traditional method of DNA technology
robotics The science of using robots to perform operations formerly done by human beings. (p.
serology Scientific analysis of blood, semen, and other body fluids. (p. 502)
spyware Computer software that collects personal information, changes computer settings, or
generates advertising. (p. 507)
Trojan horse A computer virus acting or disguising itself as a legitimate program that when
vehicle tracking systems Transmitters that enable investigators to track a vehicle during a
Voiceover IP (VoIP) A subset of IP telephony that is a set of software, hardware, and standards
designed to enable voice transmissions over packet-switched networks, which can be either an
internal local area network or the Internet. VoIP is not associated with a physical telephone line,
Assignments
1. You have been hired by the Smalltown Police Department as a consultant to implement
computerization in the department. The department currently has no computerized
systems at all. The commissioner tells you that she has a significant but limited budget to
begin the computerization of the department. She wants the following department
functions to receive priority this year: the 911 system, crime analysis, and the police
laboratory. Based on your reading of this chapter, prepare a report to the commissioner
2. Does the value of license plate recognition (LPR) technology outweigh citizens’ privacy
3. Research on the Internet to find the most recent advances in nonlethal weapons. What are
some examples of the latest technology being employed in these types of weapons? [LO
4. Conduct research on the ACLU’s lawsuit to determine how the U.S. government uses
5. Your captain has asked you to speak about how to prevent identity theft at a senior
citizens’ center. Prepare a brief presentation explaining what identity theft is, how to
6. Using the Internet, research the latest advances in DNA technology. How is it employed
