IRM 11-1
Chapter 11: Additional Groups of Victims with Special Problems
from Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology, 10e by Andrew Karmen
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
L01. List the special problems cruise ship passengers face in relation to how acts of violence and theft at
sea are handled.
L03. Identify trends in the risks of violence and theft middle and high school students face on school
grounds.
L05. Discuss the patters and trends in the rates of workplace violence.
L07. Discuss how violence between inmates in jails and prisons is being monitored and addressed.
L09. Discuss the measures implemented to enhance officer safety.
L10. Identify the factors considered in terrorist threat assessments in the United States.
LESSON PLAN
Correlated to PowerPoints
I. Particular Groups That Face Special Problems that Require Special Solutions
A. There is some overlap between groups of rediscovered victims.
B. The criminal justice system needs to improve how it handles these cases and addresses
victims’ needs.
II. Passengers Harmed While on Cruise Ships [Learning Objective 1]
A. Festival atmosphere is punctuated by outbreaks of violence and theft.
1. Passengers face specific problems, which are as follows:
3. Cruise Vessel Security and Safety Act of 2010 stipulates the following:
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c. Cruise lines must report crimes to the FBI.
4. In 2017, 10 ships submitted reports: 1 murder, 13 injured in attacks, and 75
sexual assaults.
What If Scenario
Assume that you work for the FBI and have been assigned to ensure that crimes aboard cruise ships are reported properly.
What steps might you take to accomplish this? What obstacles must you overcome?
III. Individuals Menaced by Stalkers [Learning Objective 2]
A. Stalking: A New Word for an Old Problem
2. It may start as a series of noncriminal acts (sending unwanted e-mails, watching
3. Police took action in less than 40 percent of cases of reported stalking; 8 percent
4. California has a Threat Management Unit for people who believe they are in
danger of an impending attack.
5. Two types of victim–offender relationships account for most complaints.
a. A celebrity experiences interference from a secret admirer or outright
7. Survey data show most women report being stalked by a former intimate male.
9. Differential risks of being stalked are as follows:
10. Victims suffer emotional and financial crises.
B. The Scope of the Problem
1. The stalking problem is measured by interviews and surveys.
b. 7.5 million people in 2014
c. NCVS in 2012: 3.3 million
3. Intimate partners issue more serious warnings, are more persistent, increase the
treat levels, and more likely to follow through on their threats.
4. Turning to the criminal justice system for relief
a. All 50 states criminalized stalking by 1994.
5. Reducing risks
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b. Victims are often told to change their behaviors or add behaviors.
i. Keep a log of harassment
C. Cyberstalking: A New Word for a New Problem
1. Early victims were told to turn their computers off; stalking activities were not
criminal.
2. Police were not sure who had jurisdiction.
4. Tracking via GPS device is commonly done by 1 of 200 apps.
6. Survey data show that most cyberstalkers are male strangers and most victims are
young females.
7. In 2005, 36 percent of prosecutors’ offices pursued cyberstalking cases.
Media Tool
Obsessed
-A feature film about a woman who stalks a married man
-Discussion: At what point, did you know Lisa was stalking Derek? With what activities did the stalking begin?
How did it escalate? What cyberstalking did you witness?
Class Discussion/Activity
In small groups, perform a keyword search of new databases to find articles about stalking in the area surrounding campus.
How was the act defined? How did the criminal justice system react? What changes could have been made to better its
handling?
Class Discussion/Activity
Discuss ways to prevent oneself from cyberstalking.
IV. Victims of Crimes Committed at School [Learning Objective 3]
A. Threats Facing Middle and High School Students
1. By law, students are compelled to attend school, thus forcing them to interact
with potential victimizers.
2. Table 11.1 shows NCVS data regarding victimization rates of 12- to 18-year-olds
at school.
a. Victimization rates dropped sharply from 1992 to 2015.
3. Figure 11.1 shows data regarding murdered students from 1992 to 2015.
a. Adults killed on school grounds are not included.
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What If Scenario
Assume that you are school board member of a local school system that relies on property tax money for funding. There has
been a recent uptick in violence in the surrounding neighborhoods and at your school. Some incidents seem more disruptive
than violent to you, but you want to be accurate in your reporting. What reasons do you have to be conservative in your
reporting? What reasons do you have to be flexible or liberal with your definitions of violence?
B. Threats Facing College Students [Learning Objective 4]
1. The extent of crime on campus
2. Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act of 1990 requires universities to
report crime data.
4. Clery Act of 1998 requires colleges to keep a crime log and issue annual crime
reports—and make all of it available to the public.
5. Table 11.2 details crime rates for college campuses from 2001 to 2015.
b. Forcible sex offenses have soared and outnumbered aggravated assaults
and robberies.
6. Crime risks are higher for residents on campuses than for commuters.
7. Murders are very rare; data can be inflated by mass shootings.
8. Box 11.1 lists high-profile shootings and stabbings.
9. It is impossible to compare colleges by safety using victimization rates.
See Assignment 1
What If Scenario
Assume that you plan to work toward your graduate degree and are now searching for the best university for you. You
discover that the one with the best program in your area of study has recently been the site of a mass shooting. What effect
does this have on your decision to attend? What extra precautions might you take, if any?
C. The Controversy over Hazing on Campus
3. Hazing is both outlawed and tolerated (even accepted).
5. Hazing accounts for at least one death per year from 1961 until 2017.
6. To break the cycle, many universities have a zero-tolerance approach, which
results in expulsion.
Media Tool
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Goat
-A feature film about fraternity hazing
-Discussion: Do you think this type of hazing is still common on college campuses? Why does Brett avoid the
events that he must attend? The campus fraternity has a strong culture of silence. How common is this on U.S. campuses?
What could the university do to prohibit hazing in the future?
V. Casualties of Workplace Violence [Learning Objective 5]
A. Workplace violence was rediscovered in 1989
1. A spate of mass shootings during the 1980s and 1990s brought about the term
2. Workplace violence includes acts or threats of harassment, intimidation, or
3. Potential targets include employees, customers, clients, and visitors.
5. Rate of workplace violence declined in the 1990s, as did other violent crime
rates.
6. Figure 11.2 shows trends in work-related murders from 1992 until 2016.
B. Differential Risks of Being Wounded or Murdered While on the Job
1. Risk factors include the following:
a. Handling cash
2. Law enforcement officers face highest risks, followed by mental health workers.
4. Disproportionate numbers of deaths were suffered by men, immigrants, and
minorities.
5. Security consulting firms offer threat assessment and risk management services.
a. Prevent an intruder from entering work site
See Assignments 2 and 3
Class Discussion/Activity
When you are offered a job, do you research the history of violence at that company/location? Explain your reasoning. Are
employees able to take any precautions to prevent violence at work?
VI. Targets of Hate Crimes [Learning Objective 6]
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A. Rediscovering a Very Old Problem
1. Hate crimes received attention in the 1980s.
2. Political activists argued that bias crimes or hate crimes have an impact on the
victim and on the community at large that goes far beyond the injuries inflicted.
3. Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 sought data to generate statistics.
4. When people side with an aggressor, intergroup relations are strained.
a. Police must move quickly to deter further problems.
B. How Many Outbursts of Hatred?
2. Victims are typically members of negatively stereotyped out-groups.
3. Hate crimes stand out due to the following reasons:
4. Estimates about bias crimes can serve as an early warning system for trouble.
Calculating differential risks is difficult because of the following reasons:
a. Crimes go unreported.
C. Patterns and Trends in Victim–Offender Relationships
1. In 2016, FBI data show the following:
a. Nine murders took place due to hate.
b. Of 4,700 people targeted, 45 percent experienced acts of intimidation, 35
percent suffered simple assaults, and 20 percent suffered aggravated
assaults.
2. Since 2000, the NCVS can be used to gauge hate-crime activities.
a. About 250,000 hate crimes are experienced each year.
D. Criminal Justice System Reforms
2. Police departments take special steps to investigate and solve hate crimes.
a. Some departments have hate crime squads.
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b. They can respond promptly, keep victims informed, and help victims
find aid.
3. District attorneys prosecute hate crimes vigorously.
See Assignment 4
Media Tool
American History X
-A feature film about a former neo-Nazi who wants his life to serve as a cautionary tale to his brother
-Discussion: What bias incidents and bias crimes were portrayed in the movie? Were they always obvious? What
groups were targeted? Why? How does the ending attempt to influence the movie-going public?
Class Discussion/Activity
Should hate be a crime? Discuss the fine line between freedom of speech and inciting hatred against cultural groups. How
and when should the criminal justice system respond?
VII. Violence between Prisoners
A. Inmates attacked by other inmates face unique problems. [Learning Objective 7]
1. They cannot escape interacting with dangerous people.
3. Attacks are often motivated by race or ethnicity.
5. Recidivism can create another wave of victims.
B. Discovering Differential Risks of Getting Slain behind Bars
1. Deaths in Custody Reporting Act of 2000 rediscovered victims.
2. Most dangerous prison systems are in New Mexico, Maine, Maryland, and
3. Jail data show highest risks are faced by men over 55 years old, convicted of
5. Rates should be zero since the government is responsible for their well-being.
a. Murder rates are lower in jail than on the outside streets.
6. Factors that are the best predictors of being assault or stabbed are as follows:
a. Having been placed in segregation as punishment
e. Holding inmates in low regard
f. Turning to drugs as a coping mechanism
7. Prisons need to identify vulnerable inmates to deter violence.
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8. More research is needed to determine where, when, and why slayings happen.
VIII. Law Enforcement Officers Injured and Slain in the Line of Duty
A. Law enforcement officers face special challenges. [Learning Objective 8]
3. Their uniforms make them targets of ambush from those who oppose the
government.
5. Figure 11.3 shows that line-of-duty deaths are decreasing.
a. 2013 had the lowest rate since 1944.
b. Annual average is about 50 lives lost to felonious assaults per year.
B. Who, Where, When, and How? [Learning Objective 9]
1. Monitored by the FBI and presented in the annual UCR analysis, Law
2. From 2007 to 2016, 509 officers died from felonious assaults.
a. What they were doing (in order of lives lost): making arrests, carrying
out traffic stops, investigating suspicious people, responding to
disturbances, and responding to tactical situations. Others suffered
unprovoked attacks or were ambushed.
3. Most of the 545 cop killers were white males, about 31 years old with criminal
records.
4. Undercover officers face higher risks of being shot than uniformed officers.
a. African-American officers suffer the highest risks of friendly fire.
6. Making the job safer
a. Fewer deaths can be attributed to bullet-resistant vests, better training,
improved weaponry, stun guns, SWAT teams, and decreased crime.
b. The Department of Justice (DOJ) has fostered initiatives to reduce
chances of injury, which are as follows:
i. Officer Safety and Wellness Working Group
C. Showing Solidarity
1. In 1984, a national self-help group was created to address needs and concerns of
the families of fallen officers.
2. Pursue justice for fallen fellow officers
a. Ninety-nine percent clearance rate
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See Assignment 5
IX. Casualties of Politically Inspired Violence and Terrorism [Learning Objective 10]
A. Terrorism predates warfare
2. Terrorists attack targets to gain attention of a third party.
3. They rely on stealth and deception to disrupt more powerful adversaries who
would defeat them in warfare.
4. Focused terrorism is aimed at specific targets and symbols.
5. Public is affected in several ways.
a. They become cynical and pessimistic about the enemy or about their own
side.
B. Assessing the Threat of Terrorism
2. Confounding measurement issues include the following:
a. Terrorist groups do not always claim responsibility.
4. FBI began monitoring terrorist activities in the mid-1970s.
5. Worst terrorist suffering occurred on September 11, 2001, when 19 hijackers
linked to Al Qaeda crashed airplanes into several targets.
6. Since 9/11, several debates have raged over the following questions:
a. Which killings and mass murders are counted as terrorism?
b. How much money is spent on counterterrorism?
c. Should civil liberties be decreased or eliminated?
d. What groups should be surveilled or investigated?
7. Since 9/11, the following two types of domestic terrorism have emerged:
8. Most homegrown violent extremist (HVE) attacks have occurred in the West and
9. Threats posed by Islamic extremists get more attention than those by HVEs.
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a. In 2017, five attacks killed 17 people.
10. There are more HVE attacks, but Islamic attacks are deadlier.
11. Politically inspired violence is on the rise in other countries.
C. Assistance and Recovery
1. Strong emotional reactions lead to physical problems.
3. International Terrorism Victims Compensation Program offers financial
assistance.
a. It distributed $7 million to 9/11 families.
b. It sets off a fiery debate concerning proper societal response to
victimization due to terrorism. The questions included are as follows:
i. Where does the money come from?
4. Third-party lawsuits pursue a range of targets for financial redress.
Media Tool
One Day in September
-A feature film about the murder of 11 athletes during the 1972 Summer Olympics
-Discussion: What political ideology motivated the attacks? What effect does the interspersing of tourism videos
have? What effect does the Al-Gashey interview have on the viewer? What security measures may have prevented the
attacks?
Class Discussion/Activity
Are you concerned that another terrorist attack is looming? Do you feel as if the government is able to thwart any potential
attack? Explain your reasoning.
What If Scenario
Assume that you have been assigned to answer the difficult questions posed after the September 11, 2001, attacks. See pages
462 and 463 of your textbook. How would you respond to each question?
LECTURE NOTES
This chapter examines eight additional groups of victims whose plights have been rediscovered in recent
years and the challenges faced by the criminal justice system in addressing their needs. The first group,
cruise ship passengers harmed at sea, faces special challenges. With no police officers aboard,
investigations cannot begin until the ship docks, and foreign laws and procedures may prevail. Not
surprisingly, few passenger complaints have led to arrests or convictions. In 2010, Congress passed the
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Students harmed at school comprise the third group of rediscovered victims. Teenage students face a
special problem. Compulsory education laws compel them to attend their local middle and high schools,
which forces them to interact with potential victimizers. Data show that victimization rates have dropped
sharply over the past 20 years, and as of 2016, students are less likely to suffer violence at school than on
become injured or murdered while doing their jobs under conditions determined by their employers.
Disgruntled or emotionally disturbed employees have attacked their bosses or coworkers for many years,
but the problem was not routinely monitored or analyzed until its rediscovery in 1989 when the term
workplace violence was coined. By 2004, deadly assaults within workplaces had declined so substantially
that workplace violence was less likely to claim lives than motor vehicle accidents, falls, or being struck
and Latino/Latina; by religion are Jewish and Muslim; by sexual orientation are gay males and lesbians.
Of the 250,000 hate crimes experienced each year, data show that Latinos/Latina suffer more than any
other groups and low-income people suffer the most violent attacks.
Prisoners who experience violence from other prisoners make up the sixth group. In 2000, the BJS began
compiling a database about fatalities of these rediscovered victims. Jail data show 325 homicides between
IRM 11–12
state, and federal level face special challenges and threats. They interact with criminals on a daily basis,
run toward dangerous situations, and wear uniforms that make them targets of antigovernment
individuals. From 2007 to 2016, 509 officers died from felonious assaults. Of those who died, they were
(in order of lives lost) making arrests, carrying out traffic stops, instigating suspicious people, responding
surrendering to the terrorists’ political or social demands. Unlike common criminals, terrorists do not
commit their violent offenses to line their own pockets. They intend to advance their political cause and
seek publicity for their dramatic deeds in order to score propaganda victories. They attack certain targets
in order to gain the attention of a third party—the audience whom they are desperately trying to influence.
By relying on stealth and deception, terrorists try to disrupt and demoralize more powerful adversaries
KEY TERMS
bias crime: A prejudice-motivated crime in which the victim is targeted for his or her membership in a
specific cultural group. Also called a hate crime.
bias incidents: Constitutionally protected conduct or speech enacted due to harm a specific cultural
group.
confirmed terrorist attacks: Incidents in which law enforcement agencies have identified the
responsible parties and their political motives.
cyberstalking: The repeated use of electronic communication media to threaten and harass someone.
domestic terrorism: Activities that involve acts dangerous to human life within the United States, in
violation of state or federal law, by groups or individuals with no foreign ties.
IRM 11–13
proxy stalking: A pattern of behavior in which a third party, recruited by the perpetrator, carries out the
actual shadowing and harassment of the target.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Obtain the crime reports from your college or university for the past five years. Evaluate the trends by
2. Develop a crime prevention analysis for your college/university or workplace. Complete the report
3. Access the most recent Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries report issued by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics. Analyze the careers that interest you by examining how often people in those jobs were
4. Search the Internet for websites whose main purpose is to express hatred of another group. Provide an
analysis of one website and argue whether this group has crossed the line between the First
5. Analyze the number of police killings in your local area. For each, describe the circumstances of the
slaying and the sentencing of the offender, if caught. Then describe the similarities among the killings