Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Teaching Public Speaking 4e
Part Two: Practical Matters
Contents:
Classroom Management: Proactive and Reactive Strategies
Classroom Management: Tips for Novice Teachers – by Carl Burgchardt
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Classroom Management:
Proactive & Reactive Strategies
Preview
The same strategies that nurture a healthy learning environment
will function proactively to minimize problems with students.
“Classroom management”: An update
When I talk about classroom management, I mean more than “control” and “discipline.” I refer to
measures an instructor can take to create and sustain a climate that encourages student receptiveness to
learning/improving. I also refer to measures a teacher can take to nurture relationships (in and out of the
classroom) that promote learning and growth.
Various studies validate this view of classroom management. We could begin with studies of power
bases (see French & Raven, 1959) in the classroom. In one early study (Bachman, Bowers, & Marcus,
1968), students responded most favorably to expert power. Students who respected their instructor’s
expertise reported ready compliance and expressed satisfaction. Legitimate power (i.e., one who has
Students likes and dislikes and the implications for instruction
I’ve entertained thoughts that it doesn’t matter whether students like me or what I do or what I’m having
them do. “Shut up and take your medicine” is what I’ve been tempted to say. I’ve always had a hunch that
students’ attitudes should at least be considered, though. Studies of motivation confirm my suspicion.
Diane M. Christophel (1990) finds that student’s state motivation (i.e., motivation to do one’s best in
a particular class) is “modifiable” by teachers. She identifies teacher immediacy as a central factor in
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
explains, is “one of the most important variables in developing positive teacher-student relationships” and is
also “related to positive student and learning outcomes, such as motivation, affect, and satisfaction” (p. 68).
More confirmation: An examination of teacher “misbehaviors”
Patricia Kearney (1991) and a team of coauthors lend more support to a proactive approach to managing the
learning environment. Kearney, et al., examine teachers’ behaviors as “potential sources of instructional
and/or motivational problems” (p. 309). These authors identify 28 behaviors that constitute “misbehaving.”
They suggest that every instructor review the list and contemplate her or his own behavior because “we are
The good news is that most instructors behave well. For the most part, instructors keep their
misbehaviors to a minimum. There is additional good news, as well: once instructors are sensitive to these
misbehaviors and the ill-effect they can have, they can guard against them to nurture an environment
more conducive to learning. After all, if a teacher misbehaves, a student likely will reciprocate.
Undesirable consequences include “negative teacher evaluations, poor attendance, classroom disruptions,
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
An update regarding “misbehaviors”
In a 2015 study, Goodboy & Myers praise Patricia Kearney’s “seminal” work (p. 134), and they offer “a
more comprehensive typology of instructor misbehaviors” (p. 145) taking into account technological and
cultural changes in the 24 years since Kearney published her team’s findings. They identify 16 additional
perceived misbehaviors, noting that not all of them actually should be viewed as true misbehaviors.
As with Kearney’s early study, these authors found that the most frequent misbehavior was
“ineffective teaching behaviors,” which included the teacher failing to be clear or to make material or
assignments relevant as well as failing to establish and maintain good relations, such as not having
The impact of instructors behaving badly
A recent article by Mazer et. al. (2014) illuminates the emotional fallout of instructors’ incompetence or
misbehavior. They observe that when students perceive a teacher as “nonverbally nonimmediate, lacking
Student motivation and instructor behavior: The bottom line
Joan Gorham and Diane M. Christophel (1992) found that students “are more likely to attribute their lack
of motivation in a college class to what the teacher does and to attribute their being motivated to more
personal factors such as an interest in the subject, general achievement motivation, or desire/need to earn
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Reparations or not: What softens the impact of perceived misbehavior
The title nicely captures the authors’ focus: “Instructor Misbehavior and Forgiveness: An Examination of
Student Communicative Outcomes in the Aftermath of Instructor Misbehavior.”
instructor misbehavior.
Most notably, perhaps, they find that immediacy “may not impact perceptions of severity or
blameworthiness.” Even so, though, immediacy “does reduce students’ likelihood of being motivated to
avoid or retaliate against an instructor,” and this outcome is especially important because “nonverbally
immediate instructors” the authors observe, “may foster healthier relationships with their students, with
correspondingly higher levels of openness and approachability that encourage students to deal
constructively with an occasional misbehavior” (p. 318).
I find this reassuring, and refreshing. I am “only human,” after all, and I suspect you are as well. I
have slipped up on occasion, but I find people are generally still willing to work with me and motivated to
What scholars in education conclude about teacher behavior
Thus far I’ve noted what scholars in communication have said about the impact of an instructor’s actions
upon the behavior and motivation of her or his students. Now let’s look at the findings of scholars of
education, particularly a study by Michael G. Garko, et al. (1994). These authors conclude as follows:
The facilitation of learning rests most fundamentally upon the interpersonal relationship
between the teacher and student. It is a relationship in which the teacher is authentic, values
the learner, and possesses empathic understanding of the student (p. 64).
In this study, students were “unquestionably clear about wanting the professor to have a direct,
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Another strategy for proactive management
In addition to motivating students, winning their respect, and gaining their compliance via displaying
liking, enthusiasm, empathic understanding, and so forth, Deborah A. Brunson & Judith F. Vogt (1996)
Performance enhancement via a sense of community
Jo Sprague also noted the importance of being a facilitator, and part of what must be facilitated is a sense of
community. In a special issue of Communication Education, Sprague (1993) responded to various
testimonials about teaching, noting that several contributors suggested that teaching “does not really work
When students value others and see that they are valued in return, good things can happen. This
phenomenon is explained by Stephen R. Covey in a national bestseller several years ago. Covey (1989)
emphasizes the importance of “interdependence” and how it’s a must for success. Interdependent people
recognize their own capabilities as well as those of others. They seek out partnerships and collaborations
because they recognize that by combining talents and abilities they can create “something greater” (p. 51)
than they could by working independently.
In one of the best lessons of the book, Covey writes:
If I am physically interdependent, I am self-reliant and capable, but I also realize that
you and I working together can accomplish far more than, even at my best, I could
No doubt, we would do well to nurture this mindset and facilitate these experiences. And while students
are operating within this paradigm, they are developing their communication sensitivities and skills, and
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
With connectedness, more than performance improves
Michael Sollitto et. al. (2013) review findings that students who “perceive a sense of
connectedness in the classroom” are “less likely to be inconsiderate of their classmates (e.g.,
arriving late to class or talking to each other during class) and [less likely] to be disruptive during
An assignment that emphasizes and demands interdependency
For the past several years I’ve had great success with an assignment that requires students to respond to
the question: “What have you taught us?” I alert students early in the semester that I’ll be asking them the
question and that it will be part of their final exam. I instruct them to keep track of their various
contributions as they take notes during class, and I remind them regularly of “the question to come.”
I also remind them, after someone has made an especially insightful contribution, by saying: “Be sure to
Segue: When good deeds won’t do it
Even though most students respond favorably to our professional manner, our
courtesy and apparent goodwill toward them, our attempts to be likable, and our
faith in them and the faith we would have them to have in one another, there’s
Student misbehaviors: Problem or opportunity?
Do you recall the old (i.e., ancient!) Saturday Night Live skit where the couple argued whether “New
Shimmer” was a floor wax or a dessert topping? The announcer intervened, saying, “Relax you two. New
Shimmer is both a floor wax and a dessert topping! Here, you try some on this damp mop. And you try
some on your butterscotch pudding.” The couple did so, with one exclaiming, “Mmmmm! Tastes great!”
and the other adding: “And just look at that shine!”
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Students who misbehave resemble New Shimmer in that they are two things at once: they are a
problem and an opportunity. Anne W. Dodd (1997) encourages instructors to dwell on the latter. In her
McKeachie’s inventory and advice
Wilbert J. McKeachie (1999) devotes a chapter to exploring common problems and what might be done
about them. In the next few entries, I’ll explore a few of the topics he addresses. My recommendation,
though, is that you purchase a copy of McKeachie’s book (any recent edition will do). His book is a
comprehensive collection of teaching tips and is well informed by research (and his wisdom)..
Anger
If a student is clearly angry about a grade, the difficulty of an exam, or whatever, invite the student to
discuss it with you. During the discussion, McKeachie (1999) suggests that you let the student see that
you “recognize him [or her] as an individual . . . are committed to his [or her] learning, and . . . are willing
to listen and respond as constructively as possible” (p. 236). If the student raises a “valid point,”
McKeachie advises: “Don’t be so defensive about your grading that you fail to make an adjustment” (p.
237). He also recommends what I emphasized earlier: establish and use a clear set of criteria for
performance/grading and you’ll have far fewer headaches! (See p. 238.)
Unprepared students
McKeachie observes that “one of the most common causes of underpreparation is that students don’t
really know what is expected” (p. 242). He encourages instructors to supply students with a syllabus that
clearly and precisely communicates what you expect and when.
If clear expectations don’t seem to work, McKeachie suggests various strategies, including a “shot
across the bow” with a quiz. He doesn’t count the points for the first quiz but does record scores for
regular, announced quizzes that follow (see p. 242).
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
“My computer crashed” and other excuses
From time to time a student will hand in something past due along with an explanation of why it’s late.
McKeachie muses: “I believe that it is better to be taken in by a fraudulent excuse than to be seen as
unfair in response to a legitimate excuse” (p. 244). Who can argue with that?
Innattentive students
When students talk to one another in class, ignoring the teacher and causing a distraction, life is not good.
McKeachie (1999) suggests a bit of healthy introspection to see if you are doing anything in your lecture
or manner of conducting discussion that might be “too difficult? too easy?” (p. 241) and so on. In other
words, as discussed in an earlier entry, are you misbehaving?
If you’re certain you’re not a source of irritation, McKeachie recommends various strategies to
diplomatically communicate your disapproval. He also suggests reconfiguring the seating arrangement
and/or holding one-on-one conferences with the overly talkative ones.
Challenges to a grade
Students may wish to challenge the grade on an assignment. In the Spotlight that follows, Cheri Simonds
and Jennifer Czarnik lay out a strategy for making appeals a constructive experience, as well as reducing
the number of unwarranted appeals. They have had great success with this approach at Illinois State
University.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Spotlight on . . . Evaluation Challenges:
An Exercise in Critical Thinking
—Cheri J. Simonds & Jennifer Czarnik,
Illinois State University
Purpose: To afford students the opportunity to constructively and critically challenge
grades received. Also, to prevent classroom disruption from destructive student evaluation
challenges.
Rationale: Evaluation challenges occur when students question the nature of evaluation
procedures or grades received (Simonds, 1997). But not all challenges are negative or
destructive. Some challenges are based on a student’s “reflective skepticism” (McPeck,
1981), which is valued in our educational society as critical thinking.
Procedures for Appealing Your Grade
1. Submit a specific written appeal. This should include the following:
a. Identification of the issue in question (e.g., outline, delivery, test item number).
2. Schedule an appointment to see me.
a. Written appeals must be submitted before making an appointment.
b. Appointments may be made before or after class, not during.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
3. Make your case!
a. When you come to see me, bring in your graded copy of the item in question
(e.g., quiz, speech evaluation sheet).
References:
#################################
Other problems and situations
Instructors with whom I’ve worked often have asked me to identify/discuss the most common problems
I’ve encountered while teaching, as well as the most troubling situations. These include the following.
Leave-taking behaviors
Students begin packing up, ready to leave, and there’s still one, two, seven minutes remaining! I always
ask them what’s going on, in a friendly sort of way. “Going somewhere?” I might ask, chuckle and shake
Attending, but not attending
Students sometimes attend in body but not in mind. I’m talking about students who come to class but do
their homework for another class or sit there with the student newspaper unfolded across their desk or—
gasp!—lifted up in screen-like fashion. The most common infraction, though, is—you guessed it—texting
or whatever with their cell phone device! Regardless of the type of negative behavior, I let them know
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
The now perennial problem of texting, Tweeting, surfing, and gaming in class
The proliferation of Apple and Android devices and our steady reliance on them—coupled with our
immense need for their presence (Maslow, anyone?)—makes it unlikely we’ll be doing without them any
time soon, let alone for any length of time!
Instructors everywhere worry about the impact on learning and the disruption these devices can pose.
These are legitimate concerns, worthy of contemplation and investigation. Several scholars have
answered the call, so to speak.
A recent article by Jefferey H. Kuznekoff, Stevie Munz, and Scott Titsworth. (2015), for instance, is a
“must read.” These authors provide an exemplary review the relevant literature, inventorying the various
First, it would seem prudent to acquaint students with the studies so they can be informed on the
matter and perhaps even appreciate the value of having information so they can make informed decisions.
And with knowledge comes responsibility/accountability. Once they know, then it’s “on them.” We can
wash our hands of the matter, to some extent, anyway.
We cannot, of course, allow any behavior (with cell phones or otherwise) that distracts others.
Curtailing disruptive behavior is a longstanding, universally recognized rule, common to campus policies.
But what constitutes a distraction when it comes to cell phone use? Rather than decide it on our own, I’d
suggest involving students in deciding the matter and, on that basis, craft a workable policy.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
policy. (Whether the majority would agree—if that’s how we’re deciding policy—remains to be seen.)
In any event, merely discussing these matters would help underscore how we differ in our preferences
and some people are, indeed, distracted. That being the case, persons who feel a strong sense of
Gone, gone, gone
As noted in a previous section, it’s perfectly legitimate to penalize students for excessive absence because
Disagreement over participation
I also noted in a previous section that participation grades can spell trouble. Let’s reiterate Rebecca
Extra credit = extra work
Students who have not done very well often implore: “May I do something for extra credit?” Why should
a student need extra credit, though? I see three possibilities, and each deserves consideration. For one, is
the course too tough? Am I expecting too much? Are my quizzes too hard? If I determine my course is
too tough, then I’ll make adjustments.
Another possibility could be that the student has simply not performed well and needs assistance. If
so, assistance might allow them to salvage the overall grade. If I determine a student needs assistance, I’ll
Grades and consequences
Students have been known to try to wheedle a higher grade in the course by pointing out that the grade
you’re assigning will wreck their GPA. Simply remind them that they were the ones doing the driving;
you’re not liable for their crash.
Metaphors aside, this plea is something we all encounter. Tears may stream as they explain how
they’ll lose a scholarship; let down their poor, sweet mother who always dreamed of them going to
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
college; and so on and so forth.
I always attempt to empathize and then ask them if I made an error in the math. I tell them to double
check, and I hand them my calculator. I refuse, however, to go back and examine every assignment for
additional points. My policy, which I place on my syllabus, is that a student must discuss any questions
Getting personal: What gives?
Students know you’re a nice person, otherwise they wouldn’t think you’re an easy mark and do things
like hit you up for an improved grade. Let’s face it, you’re goodhearted and students pick up on that. They
will employ any number of affinity-seeking behaviors to help us see that they, too, are a nice person (see
Wanzer, 1998) who deserves a break.
It’s also the nature of our classes that we become familiar with our students. The small class size
virtually assures that we will know them by name. And we have them do things that border on the
personal, and we react to what they do. Because of the intimate nature of our instruction, students often
feel they can confide in us, share their woes, and obtain advice.
I want my students to know they can confide in me. And I wish some would who do not, such as one
Follow-up to the previous entry: a field guide for getting personal
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
In addition to getting to know the counselors at your school, I also encourage you to read a very brief yet
very helpful article by MacGeorge, Samter, and Gillihan which appeared in the October 2005 issue of
Communication Education (See the references listed below.). In this article the authors note how
providing supportive communication can help a student’s mental and physical health.
These authors discuss emotional and informational types of supportive communication. Informational
Segue: Visiting Fort Collins
We’ve explored the literature, and you’ve heard an earful from me.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
References
Bachman, J.G., Bowers, D.G., & Marcus, P.M. (1968). Bases of supervisory
power: A comparative study in five organizational settings. In A.S. Tannenbaum
(Ed.), Control in organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Banfield, S.R., Richmond, V.P., and McCroskey, J.C. (2006). The effect of
teacher misbehaviors on teacher credibility and affect for the teacher.
Communication Education, 55, 63–72.
Brunson, D.A., & Vogt, J.F. (1996). Empowering our students and ourselves: A
liberal democratic approach to the communication classroom. Communication
Education, 45, 73–83.
Dodd, A.W. (1997). Creating a climate for learning: Making the classroom more
like an ideal home. NASSP Bulletin, 81, 10–16.
Finn, A.N. (2012). Teacher Use of Prosocial and Antisocial Power Bases and
Students’ Perceived Instructor Understanding and Misunderstanding in the College
Classroom. Communication Education, 61, 67–69.
French, J.R.P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright
(Ed.), Studies in social power. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for
Social Research.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Kearney, P., Plax, T.G., Hays, E.R., & Ivey, M.J. (1991). College teacher
misbehaviors: What students don’t like about what teachers say and do.
Communication Quarterly, 39, 309–324.
Kuznekoff, J.H., Munz, S., & Titsworth, S. (2015). Mobile phones in the
classroom: Examining the effects of texting, Twitter, and message content on student
learning. Communication Education, 64, 344–365.
McKeachie, W.J. (1999). Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for
College and University Teachers (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
McPherson, M.B. and Liang, Y. (2007) Students’ reactions to teachers’
management of compulsive communicators. Communication Education, 56, 18–33.
O’Boyle, N. (2014). Front row friendships: Relational dialectics and identity
negotiations by mature students at university. Communication Education, 63, 169–
191.
Richmond, V.P. (1990). Communication in the classroom: Power and motivation.
Communication Education, 39, 181–195.
Sollitto, M., Johnson, Z.D., and Myers, S.A. (2013). Students’ perceptions of college
classroom connectedness, assimilation, and peer relationships. Communication
Education, 62, 318–331.
Sprinkle, R, Hunt, S, Simonds, C, and Comandena, M (2006). Fear in the
classroom: An examination of teachers’ use of fear appeals and students’ learning
outcomes. Communication Education, 55, 389–402.
Thompson, Blair and Joseph P. Mazer (2009). College student ratings of student
academic support: Frequency, importance, and modes of communication.
Communication Education, 58, 433–458.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Thweatt, K.S. and McCroskey, J.C. (1998). The impact of teacher immediacy
and misbehaviors on teacher credibility. Communication Education, 47, 348–358.
Wanzer, M.B. (1998). An exploratory investigation of student and teacher
perceptions of student-generated affinity-seeking behaviors. Communication
Education, 47, 371–382.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
Classroom Management:
Tips for Novice Teachers
—Carl R. Burgchardt, Colorado State University
Encountering negative behavior
Most of the time, your students will be courteous, good-natured, and attentive. Sometimes, though, they
can be disruptive, rude, disrespectful, or dishonest. You might go several years without encountering
negative behavior, but chances are you won’t. You might even have to deal with problem students in your
first few weeks of teaching. When you encounter rude or disrespectful students for the first time, it feels
awful. You may think that the student is attacking you personally, which can undermine your confidence
and make you feel inadequate. In extreme cases, negative student behavior can make you question
whether college teaching is a good career for you. Compounding the problem, some graduate teaching
assistants don’t like to discuss the student misbehavior they encounter in the classroom for fear it might
reflect negatively on their reputations with supervisors or major professors.
Prevent negative behavior before it starts
The first step in managing your classroom is to attempt to prevent inappropriate student behavior before it
starts. You can make it less likely that students will misbehave if you ask them to respect some basic
behavioral guidelines. If possible, publish these guidelines in the syllabus and go over them in class.
Colorado State University suggests that teachers include a statement along the following lines:
While the University environment is a place where the free exchange of ideas and
concepts can take place in an atmosphere which allows for debate and disagreement,
all classroom behavior and discourse should reflect the values of respect and civility.
Both students and the course instructors share the responsibility to maintain an
appropriate learning environment that reflects these values (Hudgens, 1995).
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part Two
In addition, your syllabus should:
(2) Establish rules about class discussion, asking questions, and interacting with other students.
(4) Explain when all assignments are due and how they will be graded.
In general, teachers who have good rapport with their students encounter fewer behavior problems, so try
to conduct a relaxed, supportive class. We all must find our own teaching styles, and no one style is best
for everyone, but we all should strive to keep the classroom tension level as low as possible. An important
technique for creating a comfortable learning environment is to demonstrate through word and deed that
you care about each student. How do you do this? Here are a few tips:
(1) Repeatedly tell your students that you are excited to be their teacher
and that you are committed to helping them succeed.
(3) Above all, be consistent, and try very hard to avoid the appearance of
Despite our best efforts, however, students will still sometimes behave badly. Remember, the student is
responsible for his or her misbehavior, not you. Don’t blame yourself.
Common types of rude, disrespectful, or disruptive behavior
There are certain categories of negative behavior that tend to recur in the classroom. If you are prepared,
they will come as less of a shock when you encounter them.
Class refuses to come to order
The first problem, which is very common, is the class refuses to come to order at the appointed time.
Usually this is innocent—the students are simply enjoying conversations with each other, but sometimes
there is a malicious edge to ignoring your efforts to start class. The best remedy for this problem is to
begin the class by making a loud statement such as “Good Morning. Let’s begin.” Then, pause to let it
Talking in class
Another common problem is when students talk inappropriately in class. For example, several students
carry on a loud, extended conversation when you are lecturing or conducting a class discussion. The first
step is to make eye contact. Pause and give the offenders “the eye.” If that doesn’t work, ask if there is a