Methods
of Persuasion
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
2. Define the differences among initial credibility, derived credibility, and terminal
credibility.
4. Explain why it is important for persuasive speakers to use evidence in their
speeches.
6. Define reasoning from specific instances and explain the guidelines given in the
chapter for using this method of reasoning.
7. Define reasoning from principle and explain the guidelines a speaker should follow
17
10. Identify and explain the ten fallacies discussed in the chapter.
12. Identify three methods a speaker can use to generate emotional appeal when speaking to
persuade.
Chapter Outline
I. There is a perpetual interest in the methods of persuasion.
A. People have been studying the strategies and tactics of successful persuasion for
thousands of years.
B. Scholars generally agree that listeners are persuaded by a speaker for one or more of
four reasons.
1. Because they perceive the speaker as having high credibility.
3. Because they are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning.
4. Because their emotions are touched by the speaker’s ideas or language.
II. A speaker’s credibility plays an important role in persuading the audience.
A. Credibility is the audience’s attitude toward or perception of the speaker.
B. A speaker’s credibility is affected by two primary factors—competence and
character.
2. Character refers to how an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity,
trustworthiness, and concern for the well–being of the audience.
C. There are three types of credibility.
1. Initial credibility is the audience’s perception of the speaker before the speech
begins.
3. Terminal credibility is the audience’s perception of the speaker at the end of the
speech.
D. There are three strategies speakers can use to enhance their credibility.
1. Speakers can enhance their credibility by explaining their competence.
CHAPTER 17—METHODS OF PERSUASION 249
3. Speakers can enhance their credibility by delivering their speeches fluently, ex-
pressively, and with conviction.
III. A speaker’s use of evidence plays an important role in persuading the audience.
A. Evidence consists of examples, statistics, and testimony used to prove or disprove
something.
B. To be persuasive, speakers must support their views with evidence.
1. Careful listeners are skeptical of unsupported claims and generalizations.
3. Strong evidence is also crucial when the target audience opposes the speaker’s
point of view.
C. There are four tips persuasive speakers should follow to use evidence effectively.
1. Persuasive speakers should use specific evidence.
3. Persuasive speakers should use evidence from credible sources.
4. Persuasive speakers should make clear the point of their evidence.
IV. A speaker’s reasoning plays an important role in persuading the audience.
A. Reasoning is the process of drawing a conclusion based on evidence.
B. Public speakers have two major concerns with respect to reasoning.
2. The second is to get listeners to agree with the speaker’s reasoning.
C. Persuasive speakers often use reasoning from specific instances.
2. Speakers should follow three guidelines when reasoning from specific instances.
a. They need to beware of jumping to conclusions on the basis of insufficient
evidence.
b. They need to be careful with their wording so as not to overstate the facts.
c. They need to reinforce their argument with statistics or testimony.
D. Persuasive speakers often use reasoning from principle.
1. When speakers reason from principle, they move from a general principle to a
specific conclusion.
2. Speakers should follow two basic guidelines when reasoning from principle.
a. They need to make certain the audience will accept the general principle.
250 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
E. Persuasive speakers often use causal reasoning.
2. Speakers should follow two guidelines when using causal reasoning.
a. They should avoid the fallacy of false cause.
b. Speakers should also avoid the fallacy of assuming that events have only one
cause.
F. Persuasive speakers often use analogical reasoning.
1. Analogical reasoning compares two similar cases to draw the conclusion that
what is true in one case will also be true in the other.
2. The most important guideline for speakers using analogical reasoning is to make
sure the two cases being compared are essentially alike.
G. Regardless of the method of reasoning they use, speakers must guard against logical
fallacies in their presentations.
2. There are ten fallacies that seem most common in student speeches.
a. Hasty generalization occurs when a speaker jumps to a conclusion on the
basis of too few cases, or on the basis of atypical cases.
b. False cause occurs when a speaker assumes that because one event follows
another, the first event is the cause of the second.
c. An invalid analogy occurs when two cases being compared are not
essentially alike.
d. The bandwagon fallacy assumes that because something is popular, it is
therefore good, correct, or desirable.
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V. A speaker’s emotional appeals play an important role in persuading the audience.
A. Emotional appeals—often called motivational appeals—are intended to make
listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, fearful, reverent, or the like.
B. Speakers can generate emotional appeal in three ways.
1. One way to generate emotional appeal is with emotionally charged language.
3. A third way to generate emotional appeal is to speak with sincerity and conviction.
C. Because emotional appeals have so much potential power, they need to be used with
a strong sense of ethical responsibility.
1. Emotional appeals can be abused by unscrupulous speakers for detestable causes.
3. Ethical speakers should make sure their emotional appeals are appropriate to the
speech topic.
5. When using emotional appeals, persuasive speakers should also keep in mind the
guidelines for ethical speechmaking discussed in Chapter 2.
Exercises for Critical Thinking
(from text pages 342–343)
1. Research has shown that a speaker’s initial credibility can have great impact on how the
speaker’s ideas are received by listeners. Research has also shown that a speaker’s credibility
will vary from topic to topic and audience to audience. In the left–hand column below is a list
of well–known public figures. In the right–hand column is a list of potential speech topics. As-
sume that each speaker will be addressing your speech class.
For each speaker, identify the topic in the right–hand column on which she or he would
have the highest initial credibility for your class. Then explain how the speaker’s initial cred-
ibility might be affected if the speaker were discussing the topic in the right–hand column di-
rectly across from her or his name.
Speaker Topic
Jessica Chastain The Future of E–commerce
Michelle Obama Trends in Country Music
252 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Discussion: This exercise is almost certain to provoke a lively discussion and is a fine way
to launch a class discussion on the importance of credibility in persuasive speaking. Here
are some plausible responses to the questions about each of the speakers listed in the
exercise:
Jessica Chastain: An award-winning actor and an advocate for women in Hollywood, Chas-
tain would probably have little to say about the future of E-commerce. But she is ex-
tremely qualified to discuss “Women in Film.”
Keith Urban: Compared to Michelle Obama, Keith Urban would have little to say on “Life after
the White House.” However, as one of the top–selling country musicians in the world,
he is eminently qualified to speak on “Trends in Country Music.”
Prince William: Even though he has shown a great affinity for the cinema over the years,
2. Identify the kind of reasoning used in each of the following statements. What weaknesses, if
any, can you find in the reasoning of each?
a. The U.S. Constitution prohibits cruel and unusual punishment. Life sentencing for juve-
nile offenders is cruel and unusual punishment. Therefore, life sentencing for juvenile of-
fenders is contrary to the U.S. Constitution.
Discussion: This statement is an example of reasoning from principle. The reasoning is
valid in that the movement from the general principle (The U.S. Constitution prohibits cruel
and unusual punishment) to the minor premise (Life sentencing for juvenile offenders is
1. All country music stars live in Nashville.
3. Therefore, Willie Nelson lives in Nashville.
CHAPTER 17—METHODS OF PERSUASION 253
A sound argument from principle is one in which the reasoning is valid and all the
premises are true. For example:
1. To be elected a United States Senator, a person must be at least 30 years of age.
3. Therefore, Kamala Harris is at least 30 years of age.
In this case, the reasoning is valid and the premises are true. The argument is sound.
What about the argument regarding life sentencing for juvenile offenders? Is it sound
as well as valid? That depends upon how one interprets the meaning of the clause of the
U.S. Constitution prohibiting cruel and unusual punishment. It would be the speaker’s job
to show why life sentencing for juvenile offenders fits with accepted and credible interpre-
tations of cruel and unusual punishment.
b. We can see from its work all around the world that Women for Women International is a
worthy charitable organization. It has helped women in Rwanda operate sewing machines
and make clothing. It has given women in Kosovo the skills to operate businesses in their
communities. It has shown women in the Democratic Republic of Congo how to create
and market ceramics.
Discussion: This statement is an example of reasoning from specific instances. Whether it
is flawed depends on whether the three specific instances mentioned in the statement are
representative of the efforts of Women for Women International. And that cannot be de-
c. According to a study by the National Institutes of Health, children with gluten sensitivity
have a three times greater risk of developing scoliosis than do children without gluten
sensitivity. We can see, then, that gluten sensitivity is the cause of scoliosis.
Discussion: This statement is an example of causal reasoning. It is flawed by the fallacy of
254 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
d. Portugal decriminalized the use of drugs two decades ago, and now drug–related deaths are
extremely rare. If decriminalization can work there, it can work in the United States.
Discussion: This statement is an example of analogical reasoning. Its validity depends
upon whether the factors that allow decriminalization of drugs to work successfully in
Portugal are also present in the United States. Advocates of decriminalization argue that
3. Over the years there has been much debate about the role of emotional appeal in public speak-
ing. Do you believe it is ethical for public speakers to use emotional appeals when seeking to
persuade an audience? Do you feel there are certain kinds of emotions to which an ethical
speaker should not appeal? Why or why not? Be prepared to explain your ideas in class.
Discussion: Because so much has been written over the years about the ethics of emo-
4. Analyze the sample speech with commentary at the end of Chapter 17 in the textbook
(“Changing Lives Through the Literacy Network,” pages 338–340). Pay special attention to
the speaker’s credibility, evidence, reasoning, and emotional appeal. In addition to reading
the text, view the speech on Video 17.5 so you can assess the speaker’s delivery and its im-
pact on her persuasiveness.
Discussion: With well–chosen supporting materials and heartfelt delivery, “Changing Lives
Through the Literary Network” provides an excellent example of the methods of persua-
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to volunteer at the Literacy Network.
CHAPTER 17—METHODS OF PERSUASION 255
Method of Organization: Monroe’s motivated sequence
Credibility: A significant portion of this speech’s credibility comes from the speaker’s per-
sonal experience as a volunteer at the Literacy Network. Paragraph 4 contains the
first mention of her experience, as she notes that she has volunteered at the organ-
ization for the past year and has witnessed how “improved literacy can change
people’s lives for the better.” She returns to her experience later in the speech
when she encourages the audience to join her at the Literacy Network (paragraph
Evidence: The speaker makes effective use of all three types of evidence—statistics, tes-
timony, and examples—to establish the importance of ameliorating low adult litera-
cy. Paragraphs 5–7 cite statistics from multiple sources to demonstrate the scope
256 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
appears in paragraph 6, where the speaker quotes the National Commission on
Adult Literacy, and in paragraphs 8–9 when the speaker quotes the Literacy Net-
work and its Executive Director, Jeff Burkhart, about the need for literacy tutors in
Madison.
Reasoning: The speech relies primarily on causal reasoning. In the need section (para-
graphs 5–9), the speaker argues that low adult literacy is a widespread condition that
contributes to serious problems for individuals and society alike. In the satisfaction
and visualization sections (paragraphs 10–16), she argues that volunteering at the Lit-
eracy Network will help produce positive changes in the lives of adults who suffer
from low literacy. Causal reasoning is often employed when speakers seek immedi-
Emotional appeal: The speaker generates sympathy in paragraph 1 by putting the audi-
ence in a hypothetical scenario in which they imagine trying to communicate in a
country where they cannot read the language, which looks like “scribbles and
CHAPTER 17—METHODS OF PERSUASION 257
There is also a measure of emotional appeal in the need section (paragraphs
4–9) as the speaker builds concern about the problem of low adult literacy, a prob-
lem that exists even in a university town such as Madison. More overt is the emo-
Using Public Speaking in Your Career
(from text page 334)
As the service manager for a local home improvement company, you have been pleased to see
your company expand its size and scope, but you don’t want that growth to come at the expense
of customer service. In particular, you’re worried about losing touch with one of the company’s
key demographics—women, who make up 55 percent of your customer base. To prevent this
from happening, you have developed a plan for a range of personalized services targeted at wom-
en, including one–on–one teaching of do–it–yourself skills and free in–home consultations.
When you present your plan at a meeting of the company’s management team, you listen as one
executive argues in opposition. Among his points are the following: (1) If your plan is adopted,
customers will expect more and more special services and eventually will demand free installation
of flooring and carpeting; (2) Because a majority of the management team opposes your plan, it
must not be a good idea; (3) One of your competitors tried a customer service plan specifically for
women, but it did not succeed; therefore, your plan is doomed to failure.
In your response to the executive, you will point out the fallacy in each of his points. What
are those fallacies?
Discussion: Like the other Using Public Speaking in Your Career scenarios throughout the
book, this one is intended to show how public speaking is used in everyday life and to
challenge students to apply their critical–thinking skills to a wide range of practical situa-
tions. If you assign the scenario as a homework exercise, you can go over the answers
with students in a class discussion. The fallacies in the scenario are as follows:
(1) The claim that if the plan is adopted customers will expect more and more special
services and eventually will demand free installation of flooring and carpeting is an in-
(2) The claim that the plan is a bad idea because it is opposed by a majority of the
management team is an instance of the bandwagon fallacy because it assumes that
(3) To claim that the plan is doomed to failure because a competitor’s plan aimed at
female customers did not succeed is potentially a case of invalid analogy because it as-
sumes that the proposed plan and the competitor’s plan are essentially identical. It may be
that the proposed plan is sufficiently different from the competitor’s plan and that it will not
Additional Exercises and Activities
1. Have students analyze “The Horrors of Puppy Mills,” which appears on pages 389–393 of
this manual. Students should pay special attention to the speaker’s credibility, evidence, rea-
soning, and emotional appeal.
Discussion: Part Five of this manual contains a number of persuasive speeches for class-
room discussion and analysis. Each speech is accompanied by a detailed commentary high-
lighting its major features.
2. Have students complete the Fallacies Worksheet, which appears on pages 262–263 of this
manual.
Discussion: The Fallacies Worksheet gives students practice in identifying the ten falla-
CHAPTER 17—METHODS OF PERSUASION 259
a. I don’t see any reason to wear a helmet when I ride a bike. Everyone bikes without a
helmet.
Discussion: This statement commits the bandwagon fallacy. Even if it were true that
b. It’s ridiculous to worry about protecting America’s national parks against commercial
development when innocent people are being killed by terrorists.
Discussion: This statement commits the red herring fallacy. By introducing the issue
of terrorism, which is irrelevant to the question of protecting America’s national parks
c. There can be no doubt that the Great Depression was caused by Herbert Hoover. He
became president in March 1929, and the stock market crashed just seven months
later.
Discussion: This statement commits the fallacy of false cause: post hoc, ergo propter
hoc. That the stock market crashed just seven months after Herbert Hoover became
d. Now that we allow the children of illegal immigrants to attend public schools, it’s only a
matter of time before those kids grow up and vote for candidates who will open our
borders completely. Eventually our entire government will be run by illegal immigrants.
Discussion: This statement commits the slippery slope fallacy. It assumes that taking
a first step (allowing the children of illegal immigrants to attend public schools) will lead
e. Raising a child is just like having a pet—you need to feed it, play with it, and every-
thing will be fine.
Discussion: This statement commits the fallacy of invalid analogy. One does need to
260 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
f. I can’t support Representative Frey’s proposal for campaign finance reform. After all,
he was kicked out of law school for cheating on an exam.
Discussion: This statement commits the ad hominem fallacy. Instead of dealing with
the substance of Representative Frey’s proposal for campaign finance reform, the
g. One citizen polled said, “I’m not at all worried about the government collecting our
personal data. What do I have to hide?” Another insisted, “I don’t see what all the fuss
is about. If you’re worried about the NSA reading your e–mail and seeing what Web
sites you visit, then you’re probably doing something bad anyway.” We can see, then,
that most U.S. citizens are not opposed to government data–collection programs.
Discussion: This statement commits the fallacy of hasty generalization. Two exam-
ples are hardly enough to establish the claim that most U.S. citizens are not opposed
h. Our school must either increase tuition or cut back on library services for students.
Discussion: This statement commits the either–or fallacy. The speaker oversimplifies a
complex issue by reducing it to a simple either–or choice. A critical listener might ask,
3. Distribute Mary Fisher’s “A Whisper of AIDS” from pages 439–445 of this manual. Have stu-
dents analyze the speech in light of how Fisher builds her credibility, employs evidence and rea-
soning, and generates emotional appeal. You may also want to have them examine how Fisher
uses the resources of language discussed in Chapter 12 to bring her message home to listeners.
Discussion: Now considered a classic political convention speech, Mary Fisher’s 1992
address to the Republican National Convention provides a masterful illustration of the art
of public speaking. Not only does it utilize many of the methods of persuasion treated in
this chapter, but it is strikingly eloquent in its use of the resources of language explored in
4. Have students complete the Persuasive Speech Preparation Worksheet, which appears on
pages 244–245 of this manual, or assign the worksheet from the assignments available in
Connect.
Discussion: The Persuasive Speech Preparation Worksheet helps students develop their
speeches systematically. It is best assigned early in the persuasive unit, so students can
work on it throughout the speech preparation process. You can have students turn in the
5. Have students complete the Persuasive Speech Self–Assessment, which appears on page 246
of this manual.
Discussion: There is a great deal of research confirming the pedagogical value of self–
assessments. The Persuasive Speech Self–Assessment asks students to write a full, objec-
tive evaluation of their persuasive speech. Assessment items include topic and purpose,
organization, supporting materials, audience adaptation, delivery language, visual aids,
and overall performance.
262
Fallacies Worksheet
Name Section
Identify the fallacy in each of the following statements and, in each case, explain why the state-
ment is fallacious.
1. I don’t see any reason to wear a helmet when I ride a bike. Everyone bikes without a helmet.
2. It’s ridiculous to worry about protecting America’s national parks against commercial
development when innocent people are being killed by terrorists.
3. There can be no doubt that the Great Depression was caused by Herbert Hoover. He became
president in March 1929, and the stock market crashed just seven months later.
4. Now that we allow the children of illegal immigrants to attend public schools, it’s only a
matter of time before those kids grow up and vote for candidates who will open our borders
completely. Eventually our entire government will be run by illegal immigrants.
263
5. Raising a child is just like having a pet—you need to feed it, play with it, and everything will be
fine.
6. I can’t support Representative Frey’s proposal for campaign finance reform. After all, he was
kicked out of law school for cheating on an exam.
7. One citizen polled said, “I’m not at all worried about the government collecting our personal
data. What do I have to hide?” Another insisted, “I don’t see what all the fuss is about. If you’re
worried about the NSA reading your e-mail and seeing what Web sites you visit, then you’re
probably doing something wrong in the first place.” We can see, then, that most U.S. citizens
are not opposed to government data-collection programs.
8. Our school must either increase tuition or cut back on library services for students.