Speaking to
Persuade
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
2. Explain why meeting ethical obligations can be especially challenging in persuasive
speaking and identify the ethical responsibilities of persuasive speakers.
4. Explain what it means to say that audiences engage in a mental dialogue with the
speaker as they listen to a persuasive speech.
6. Define a question of fact and give an example of a specific purpose statement for a
persuasive speech on a question of fact.
7. Define a question of value and give an example of a specific purpose statement for a
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9. Explain the difference between passive agreement and immediate action as goals for
persuasive speeches on questions of policy.
11. Discuss the four methods of organization used most often in persuasive speeches on questions
of policy.
12. Identify the five steps in Monroe’s motivated sequence.
Chapter Outline
I. Persuasion is the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions.
A. The ability to speak persuasively is beneficial in everything from personal
relationships to career aspirations to civic deliberation.
II. Meeting ethical obligations can be especially challenging when one is speaking to
persuade.
A. Persuasive speakers should keep in mind the guidelines for ethical speaking.
2. They should study the topic thoroughly so they won’t mislead the audience.
4. They should be honest in what they say.
6. They should present evidence fairly and accurately.
B. Persuasive speakers should keep in mind the power of language and employ it
responsibly.
III. Persuasion is a psychological process.
A. Of all the types of public speaking, persuasion is the most complex and the most
challenging.
1. Persuasive speeches often deal with controversial topics that involve people’s
most basic attitudes, values, and beliefs.
3. For this reason, persuasive speakers must enter a speech situation with realistic goals.
B. When processing persuasive messages listeners engage in a mental give–and–take
with the speaker.
1. Listeners do not sit passively and soak in everything a speaker says.
2. Effective persuasive speakers regard their speeches as a kind of mental dialogue
with the audience.
a. When preparing the speech, they try to put themselves in the place of the
audience and imagine how they will respond.
b. Above all, they try to anticipate audience objections and to answer them in
the speech.
C. It is often helpful for persuasive speakers to think in terms of reaching their target
audience.
1. The target audience is the part of the whole audience a speaker most wants to
reach with his or her message.
2. In most situations, the target audience consists of uncommitted listeners, listeners
3. Once a speaker knows where the target audience stands, she or he can adapt the
speech to fit the values and concerns of the target audience.
IV. Some persuasive speeches deal with questions of fact.
A. Persuasive speeches on questions of fact seek to persuade an audience to accept the
speaker’s view of the facts on a particular issue.
B. A persuasive speech on a question of fact is different from an informative speech.
2. Unlike speeches to inform, persuasive speeches on questions of fact take a
partisan view of the information and try to persuade the audience to accept the
speaker’s view about that information.
C. Most persuasive speeches on questions of fact are organized topically.
1. In such speeches, each main point will present a reason why the audience should
agree with the speaker.
2. As in other speeches using topical order, persuasive speeches on questions of fact
should subdivide the topic logically and consistently.
228 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
V. Some persuasive speeches deal with questions of value.
A. Questions of value require judgments based on a person’s beliefs about what is right
or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral, etc.
B. When dealing with a question of value, a speaker needs to justify her or his value
judgment in light of a clearly defined set of standards.
C. Speeches on questions of value are usually organized topically.
2. The second main point applies those standards to the speech topic.
VI. Most persuasive speeches deal with questions of policy.
1. One type seeks to gain passive agreement that a policy is desirable, necessary,
and practical.
2. The second type seeks to motivate the audience to take immediate action.
C. Persuasive speeches on questions of policy must address three basic issues—need,
plan, and practicality.
2. Second, after showing the need for change, a persuasive speaker must offer a
specific plan—policy—that will solve the need.
4. The amount of time devoted to need, plan, and practicality in any given speech
will depend on the topic and the audience.
VII. Four patterns of organization are especially effective for persuasive speeches on
questions of policy.
A. The first pattern is problem–solution order.
1. The first main point shows the need for a new policy by proving the existence of
a serious problem.
2. The second main point presents a plan for solving the problem and demonstrates
its practicality.
B. The second pattern is problem–cause–solution order.
2. The second main point analyzes the causes of the problem.
3. The third main point presents a solution to the problem.
C. The third pattern is comparative advantages order.
2. Rather than dwelling on the need, the speaker devotes each main point to
explaining why his or her plan is preferable to other solutions.
D. The fourth pattern is Monroe’s motivated sequence, which consists of five steps that
follow the psychology of persuasion.
1. The first step is to gain the attention of the audience.
3. The third step is to satisfy the sense of need by presenting a plan that will remedy
the need.
5. The fifth step is to urge the audience to take action in support of the plan.
Exercises for Critical Thinking
(from text pages 314–315)
1. Look back at the story of Victoria Perez at the beginning of this chapter (page 290 of the text-
book). Like Victoria, most people do a certain amount of persuading every day in normal con-
versation. Keep a journal of your communication activities for an entire day, making special
note of all instances in which you tried to persuade someone else to your point of view. Choose
one of those instances and prepare a brief analysis of it.
In your analysis, answer the following questions: (1) Who was the audience for your persua-
sive effort? (2) What were the “specific purpose” and the “central idea” of your persuasive mes-
sage? (3) Did you rehearse your persuasive message ahead of time, or did it arise spontaneously
from the situation? (4) Were you successful in achieving your specific purpose? (5) If you faced
the same situation again, what strategic changes would you make in your persuasive effort?
Discussion: This exercise emphasizes the extent to which most people engage in persua-
sion as part of normal conversation. It also provides a good springboard for discussion
2. Below are four specific purposes for persuasive speeches. In each case explain whether the
speech associated with it concerns a question of fact, a question of value, or a question of pol-
icy. Then rewrite the specific purpose statement to make it appropriate for a speech about one
of the other two kinds of questions. For instance, if the original purpose statement is about a
question of policy, write a new specific purpose statement that deals with the same topic as
230 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
a. To persuade my audience that refined sugar is harmful to human health.
b. To persuade my audience that a national sales tax should be adopted to help reduce the
national debt.
c. To persuade my audience that it is unethical for doctors to receive money from pharma-
ceutical companies to promote their products.
d. To persuade my audience to join Teach for America.
Discussion: This exercise works extremely well to help students understand the differ-
ences among questions of fact, value, and policy. Two possible variations follow each of
the statements in the exercise.
a. To persuade my audience that refined sugar is harmful to human health.
(question
of fact)
b. To persuade my audience that a national sales tax should be adopted to help re-
duce the national debt.
(question of policy)
Question of fact: To persuade my audience that a major source of new revenue is
needed to help reduce the national debt.
c. To persuade my audience that it is unethical for doctors to receive money from
pharmaceutical companies to promote their products.
(question of value)
Question of fact: To persuade my audience that doctors sometimes receive money
from pharmaceutical companies to promote their products.
d. To persuade my audience to join Teach for America.
(question of policy)
Question of fact: To persuade my audience that there is a serious shortage of partici-
pants in the Teach for America program.
3. Choose a topic for a persuasive speech on a question of policy. Create two specific purpose
statements about that topic—one for a speech to gain passive agreement, another for a speech
to motivate immediate action. Once you have the specific purpose statements, explain how
the speech seeking immediate action would differ in structure and persuasive appeals from
the speech seeking passive agreement. Be specific.
Discussion: Understanding the distinction between seeking passive agreement and im-
mediate action is crucial for effective persuasive speeches on questions of policy. This
exercise helps students understand that distinction and the impact it has on the organiza-
a. Specific purpose statement for a speech seeking passive agreement: To persuade
my audience that everyone should learn CPR.
b. Specific purpose statement for a speech seeking immediate action: To persuade my
audience to enroll in a CPR class at the Red Cross.
c. Structure of the speech seeking passive agreement: This speech would most likely
be organized either in topical order (in which case each main point would explain a
d. Structure of the speech seeking immediate action: This speech could be organized
in problem–solution order, but if it were, the speaker would have to be sure to include
e. Persuasive appeals of the speech seeking passive agreement: This speech would focus
on convincing the audience that it would be desirable for everyone to have training in
CPR, but it would not try to persuade the audience to go out and learn CPR. As a result,
the speaker could deal with the topic at a general level without having to confront the
audience’s objections to taking a CPR class themselves.
f. Persuasive appeals of the speech seeking immediate action: A speaker cannot moti-
232 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
4. Analyze the sample speech with commentary at the end of Chapter 16 of the textbook
(“Getting the Lead Out,” pages 310–312). Because this is a speech on a question of policy,
pay special attention to how the speaker deals with the basic issues of need, plan, and
practicality. Does the speaker present a convincing case that a serious problem exists? Does
he offer a clear plan to solve the problem? Does he demonstrate that the plan is practical?
Discussion: A persuasive policy speech seeking passive agreement, “Getting the Lead
Out” addresses a serious social, environmental, and public health issue—namely, lead in
the water supply. Video of the speech is available online and on the DVD of student
CHAPTER 16—SPEAKING TO PERSUADE 233
Paragraph 3 notes that the Flint crisis was not an isolated incident but part of a
national problem of excessive lead in the water supply. The speaker cites a news
story from Reuters showing that 3,000 water systems in the United States have
lead levels higher than Flint, and he relates the subject to his local audience with
Body: Organized in problem–solution order, the body of “Getting the Lead Out” contains
two main points—the first dealing with the problem of lead in the water supply, the
second advocating a solution.
The problem section of the speech runs from paragraph 6 through paragraph
10. Paragraph 6 cites research from economist Joseph Ferrie showing that 87 mil-
lion American homes are estimated to have lead pipes or pipes with lead soldering
and fixtures. The next two paragraphs explicate the health effects caused by lead
contamination in drinking water. Paragraph 7 focuses on the perils among adults,
while paragraph 8 explains the dangers among children. In both cases, the speaker
paragraph 15. After a transition at the start of paragraph 11, the speaker offers a
plan based on the TrueLEADership Act, which has been proposed in the U.S. Sen-
ate. Paragraphs 12–14 explain three major parts of the act. While the speaker does
not have time to discuss each part in detail, he gives enough information for listen-
ers to get a sense of what each would do and how it would help solve the problem.
234 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
All told, this speech does an excellent job analyzing the problem and present-
ing a solution to it. Certainly there is more that could be said about such a complex
topic, but as in any speech, strategic decisions must be made about what to in-
5. Select a commercial from television or YouTube that is organized according to Monroe’s
motivated sequence. Prepare a brief analysis in which you (a) identify the target audience for
the commercial and (b) describe each step in the motivated sequence as it appears in the
commercial.
Discussion: Although this exercise does not deal directly with public speaking, it is a
splendid way to get students to think about Monroe’s motivated sequence and the struc-
Using Public Speaking in Your Career
(from text page 308)
After earning your teaching certificate, you landed a job in one of the best public school districts
in the state. You’ve excelled in the classroom, and evaluations of your teaching are consistently
outstanding.
But teacher pay in the district has been frozen for five years, leading to low morale among
you and your colleagues. Even with a strong economy and city revenues up, local officials have
prioritized areas other than teacher salaries, including affordable housing, infrastructure, and
public parks.
In one week, local officials will hold an open meeting for teachers to voice their concerns
about compensation. You plan on arguing for a 10 percent pay raise for all teachers, even
though that will have an impact on spending in other areas, but you’re unsure of how to organ-
ize your speech. Which of the following methods of organization will be most effective, and
why: problem–solution, comparative advantages, Monroe’s motivated sequence?
Discussion: Although any of the methods of organization mentioned in the question could
work for the teacher’s speech, comparative advantages would probably be the least effective.
CHAPTER 16—SPEAKING TO PERSUADE 235
Additional Exercises and Activities
1. Have students analyze “Phony Pharmaceuticals,” which appears in the appendix of sample
speeches following Chapter 20 of the textbook (pages A7–A9). Because this is a speech on a
question of policy, students should pay special attention to how the speaker deals with the
basic issues of need, plan, and practicality.
Discussion: “Phony Pharmaceuticals” is an instructive example of a persuasive speech on
a question of policy. Below is a detailed analysis of the speech. You’ll find the video of it
online and on the DVD of student speeches that accompanies this edition of The Art of
Public Speaking.
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that the federal government should pass leg-
islation curbing the spread of phony pharmaceuticals.