Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
CHAPTER 10: Using Language Effectively
Overview Learning Objectives Ideas for Instruction
Language and Meaning
The Symbolic Nature of Language ·
Denotative and Connotative Meaning
pp. 193–195
10.1 Understand the relationship
between language and meaning.
Discussion questions:
10a; 10b
Activities: 10a; 10b
Using Language that is Clear and
Accurate
Familiar Language ·Technical
Language ·Concreteness and
Specificity ·Precise Language ·
Avoiding Clichés, Empty Words, and
Distracting Language ·Constructing
Sentences to Promote Clarity ·
Simplicity
pp. 196–201
10.2
Choose language that is specific,
concrete, precise, and clear.
Discussion questions:
10c; 10d; 10e
Activities: 10b; 10c
Lecture: 10a
Using Language that is Active and
Interesting
Using Active, Vivid Language ·Using
Figures of Speech
pp. 202–207
10.3 Choose language that is lively
and vivid, using appeals to the senses
and figures of speech.
Discussion questions:
10f; 10g
Activities: 10d; 10e
Ideas for Instruction
As noted elsewhere, you will not be able to cover everything in the text—nor should you attempt to (i.e.,
“The more we teach, the less they learn.”). I always “assume” students have read the assigned reading and
that my job as an instructor is to highlight a few, select ideas from the reading (or to introduce
supplemental material) for students to contemplate, reflect upon, and apply. My goal is to help them build
meaning and internalize what they have learned, retaining it for future use.
What follows are ideas for how some material might be treated through discussion and activity.
My selections are ones I typically highlight in my own classes—depending on how much time I have to
devote to a chapter. In light of larger class sizes (which require more days per speech round), I rarely can
spend more than 50 minutes per chapter. There are only so many days in the semester, after all.
For each activity or discussion item I offer, I also estimate how much time it would require. The actual
time required, of course, is going to vary from section to section depending on what students come up
with and where we—as a class—“go” with it. I always try to plan for the session (50-minute or 75-minute
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Discussion Questions. Use these to stimulate discussion and prompt reflection. As students process the
material at a deeper, more meaningful level, they likely will offer interesting observations or pose
provocative questions of their own. Make note of these, literally! Let students know when you’re
Discussion Question 10a
Approximate time required: 5–7 min.
The text notes that “thoughtful speakers and listeners understand the power of words with strong positive
or negative connotations, and they look beyond their immediate, surface reactions to the deeper meanings
of such words.” To help students understand what words can connote and how the words we choose (or
accept) will impact our viewpoint on an issue, have them contemplate the difference between the
following word choices. Ask: “Do these phrases mean the same thing? If not, how are they different?
What would be the likely difference in effect?”
“global warming” “climate change”
Students likely will observe that “global warming” connotes something more ominous than “climate
change.” “Climate change” sounds like something that is naturally occurring, perhaps part of a cycle.
“Global warming” implies that the earth is heating up, perhaps in an irreversible way.
Follow up by asking: “What word choices might better convey the urgency that the scientific community
would have us appreciate and understand?”
Students’ suggestions will vary, but may include phrases like “climate crisis” or “climate collapse.”
These phrases connote urgency.
Note: Very important! This discussion will also help illuminate how words define a reality and once we accept the
reality that particular words suggest, we are led toward certain actions while other actions are ruled out.
For example, if you label a person as “homeless,” you are more likely to feel some sympathy for the person, and
the proper response would be to help.
Discussion Question 10b
Approximate time required: 7–9 min.
National Public Radio ran an excellent story regarding the power of words to shape understanding and
influence policy. Play the segment for class and then discuss its observations regarding the “gun debate.”
Here is how to locate the segment:
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Note: Very important! This discussion will also help illuminate how words define a reality and once we accept the
reality that particular words suggest, we are led toward certain actions while other actions are ruled out.
For example, if you label a person as “homeless,” you are more likely to feel some sympathy for the person, and
the proper response would be to help.
Discussion Question 10c
Approximate time required: 4–6 min.
What is “oral style” and how does it differ from written style?
Oral style is intended for the ear, rather than the eye. As speakers, we need to use language that is
listener-friendly. The language style suitable for the ear is more informal—resembling conversation. It
Discussion Question 10d
Approximate time required: 3–5 min.
The text observes that great speakers in American history have tended to use what kind of language?
Simple, direct language that listeners could easily grasp rather than big, pompous,
important-sounding words.
Note: You might read a few quick, illustrative lines from famous speeches, such as these words from Hillary Clinton in
an address she delivered in 1995 in Beijing, China.
What we are learning around the world is that if women are healthy and educated, their families will
Discussion Question 10e
Approximate time required: 3–5 min.
How should a speaker regard repetition and restatement?
Repetition and restatement can both prove very useful, provided they are not overused. Repetition can
help a speaker underscore words, phrases, or information, and it can help the audience better retain the
content. Restatement likewise provides emphasis and assists retention, and it can help clarify an idea by
expressing it in a little different way—a way that the audience might better grasp or understand.
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Discussion Question 10f
Approximate time required: 5–7 min.
Pose the question: “What is the effect and impact of vivid description in a speech?” While students are
contemplating how to answer, ask them to consider the following lines as an illustration, and then read the
passage aloud. After they have experienced these lines, they likely will be ready with an answer and
confident in their responses. (For added fun, see if anyone can identify the speaker after hearing the
passage, and the most famous line from the address. They should be able to—especially given the photo
and caption on p. 209! [Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate, separating East and West Berlin])
Discussion Question 10g
Approximate time required: 6–8 min.
How might you best use parallelism in a speech?
The text notes how Franklin Roosevelt used parallelism to emphasize how America’s problems “were
many and widespread.” He used it within the speech as well as in its overall structure.
What worked for Roosevelt can work for the contemporary speaker any time he or she is using a
categorical pattern. For example, a speech about methamphetamine could employ parallelism to help its
main points stand out and build on another, underscoring the magnitude of the problem.
I. Meth harms the user.
II. Meth harms society.
III. Meth harms the environment.
Parallelism can work well for the main points, as well as for sub-points. For example, a speaker
identifying a series of solutions for being more environmentally friendly could offer these sub-points
beneath a point that states: “By taking a few simple actions, we can have a profound effect.”
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Discussion Question 10h
Approximate time required: 3–5 min.
What is ethical language? Why is it important?
Ethical language is language that promotes mutual respect and avoids offending listeners.
Discussion Question 10i
Approximate time required: 4–6 min.
How does the following quotation fit with what is discussed in the text?
We must get the American public to look past the glitter, beyond the showmanship—to reality, to the
hard substance of things. And we will do that not so much with speeches that sound good as with
speeches that are good and sound. Not so much with speeches that bring people to their feet as with
speeches that bring people to their senses. —Mario Cuomo
Activity 10a
Approximate time required: 10–12 min.
Have students quickly identify specific words or phrases that suggest a particular view of the same
entity and then follow up by noting what response the word or words would coax.
When I have used this activity, my students have often pointed to the words used to describe someone
who abuses alcohol. As they note, these could include “a drunk” and “an alcoholic.” As for the
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Other examples my students have commonly offered include:
jock vs. athlete challenging vs. impossible
Activity 10b
Approximate time required: 3–5 min.
This activity (originally developed by Dr. Arne G’Schwind, Regis University) requires little class time
and makes the point quite vividly. It is a favorite of students and instructors, alike!
To help students understand the difference between abstract and concrete language, try this adaptation of
the popular parlor game, Pictionary. Gently “force” two volunteers to the blackboard. Instruct them to
draw, quickly, an image they believe will illustrate the word you utter. The first few words should be
Activity 10c
Approximate time required: 5–7 min.
Supplement the text by helping students distinguish between active and passive voice, as well as sensitize
them to how voice might be used strategically. To do so, have students work with a neighbor to identify
which is active voice and which is passive, and to note what might be the effect of each one.
“Mistakes were made.” “I made a mistake.”
The first entry is passive voice, where the subject receives the action. The second entry is active
voice, where the subject performs the action.
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Activity 10d
Approximate time required: 15–17 min.
Have your students work with a partner (or small group) to identify the figures of speech used in
the following excerpts. Have them explain how each figure functions, noting perhaps how it
generates interest, adds beauty, promotes understanding, assists retention, and/or taps the
emotions. After allowing five minutes or so, discuss each quotation with the entire class, rotating
among the partners to vary who will lead the discussion.
We should not demean our democracy with the politics of distraction, denial, and despair. —Al Gore
Gore employs alliteration to focus attention more squarely on his message and make it more
memorable.
Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. —John F. Kennedy
Kennedy uses antithesis, contrasting “negotiate out of fear” with “fear to negotiate” to note the
importance of talking with one’s enemies.
He who gave all to contain violence, lost his all—to violence. —Adlai Stevenson
Giving convicted sex offenders government-funded Viagra is like giving convicted murderers an assault rifle when
they get out of jail. —Charles Schumer
Senator Schumer uses simile. The word “like” alerts listeners to the clever comparison that
Their standard of living is one of abundant poverty. They know no stability; all is constant change.
–Audrey Hepburn
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
We must get the American public to look past the glitter, beyond the showmanship—to reality, to the hard substance
of things. And we will do that not so much with speeches that sound good as with speeches that are good and sound.
Not so much with speeches that bring people to their feet as with speeches that bring people to their senses.
—Mario Cuomo
Cuomo uses back-to-back antithesis. He juxtaposes “speeches that sound good” with “speeches that are
In Afghanistan, we took our eye off the ball. —Jessica Matthews (March 19, 2007)
Matthews uses a metaphor, allowing listeners to “see” the problem in very simple, familiar terms.
Note: For additional figures of speech, along with definitions and multiple examples, visit americanrhetoric.com and
click on “figures in sound.”
Activity 10e
Approximate time required: 12 min.
Supplement the text’s treatment of using rhetorical questions by having students experience the
artistry involved in posing effective rhetorical questions as well as how stimulating well-posed
questions can be.
One of the most powerful examples I have seen is in a song by Neil Young titled “When God
President Obama employed similar artistry when he drafted and delivered a speech in the wake of
the shootings at Sandy Hook Elementary (December 14, 2012). A few minutes into the speech, he
posed a series of rhetorical questions and followed with an answer. Here are his words, which you
might want to read aloud (or view on video) with students:
Can we truly say, as a nation, that we are meeting our obligations? Can we honestly say that we’re
A little later, leading up to the conclusion of his remarks, the president posed two more questions
for us but supplied no answer, as if to underscore that the answer he is looking for is within us.
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Are we really prepared to say that we’re powerless in the face of such carnage, that the politics are too
hard? Are we prepared to say that such violence visited on our children year after year after year is
somehow the price of our freedom?
Note: You can find Neil Young performing “When God Made Me” on YouTube, or—if your library has it—use the most
powerful version, that from Neil Young’s concert DVD titled Heart of Gold. As for the President’s speech in Newtown,
Connecticut—you can easily find the video and transcript with a simple Google search. He presented the speech on
December 16, 2012—two days after the mass killing.
Lecture Ideas. Some elements in the chapter lend themselves to careful review and/or some
Lecture 10a: Use one or more of the slides from the PowerPoint slideshow that accompanies this chapter
and prepare your own examples as illustrations of the concepts featured on the slide(s). Break up the
“lecture” by including some of the discussion questions we provide and/or an activity or two. Any
Exam Items. Testing, of course, can be an important part of instruction. We provide numerous,
high-quality multiple-choice items in our test bank. We also offer several short-answer items and
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Chapter Outline: Chapter 10: Using Language Effectively
Chapter Intro:
Style is difficult to define, partly because it is used in so many different ways. When
talking about a speaker’s style, it refers to how we use language in oral presentations.
This chapter focuses on how a speaker chooses the language for a speech and the effects
of those choices on the overall success of the speaker. A speech by President Obama
marking the 50th anniversary of the Selma to Montgomery marches, found at the end of
this chapter, provides an excellent example of effective use of language.
I. Language and Meaning
Learning Objective 10.1—Understand the relationship between language and
meaning.
A. All of us may speak English, but we do not choose and use language in the
same ways.
1. Different backgrounds provide different words or different
2. Regional uses of English, ethnic uses of language, and generational
4. It is important to keep in mind that language is symbolic and
allows for a variety of meanings.
B. The Symbolic Nature of Language
1. Words are symbols.
3. Words permit us to talk about the past and the future, and things
that we can only imagine.
5. As we speak more abstractly, ideas can become more and more
6. Abstractions are a powerful source of personal identity.
8. When a speaker uses abstract words, details are lost and
differences may be glossed over.
9. The careful listener looks for clues as to how a speaker translates
ambiguous terms into specific ideas or policies.
C. Denotative and Connotative meaning
1. Denotative meaning refers to the literal, objective meaning of
2. Connotative meanings derive from the emotional implications of
words and suggest a range of subjective and personal
4. Speakers have an obligation to be sensitive to the emotional power
of language.
6. A speaker should strive to be as clear as possible and avoid
obscuring the real meaning or stirring up emotions with highly
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
II. Using Language that is Clear and Accurate
Learning Objective 10.2—Choose language that is specific, concrete, precise, and
clear.
A. Oral style and written style are not the same.
1. In most situations, less formal, more conversational language is
used in speeches than is used in written manuscripts.
3. Oral style is more spontaneous. It allows for adaptation during
speaking.
4. A speech delivered orally is received differently from a written
presentation.
5. Oral language may be described as “written for the ear.”
a. It sounds more informal and less complex.
6. Speakers need to be sensitive to the differences between oral and
7. If speaking is to be meaningful, it must be instantly intelligible.
B. Familiar Language
1. Use words with which the audience is familiar.
2. It is important to learn as much as you can about an audience’s
education and vocabulary and to adapt accordingly.
C. Technical Language
2. In a speech to a general audience, avoid using language that
excludes people who lack technical expertise.
3. When using technical terms, define them for listeners who may not
4. Abbreviations and Acronyms
a. Technical or specialized abbreviations or substitutions for
longer words or titles may need a quick explanation.
D. Concreteness and Specificity
1. Words that are chosen for their concreteness and specificity
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
E. Precise Language
2. Not only do carefully chosen words enhance meaning and promote
clarity, they also contribute to specificity and thus heighten the
impact of a message.
F. Avoiding Clichés, Empty Words, and Distracting Language
1. Avoid using clichés, trite overused expressions that are less likely
to engage listeners’ thoughts and hold their interest.
3. Even though we might think of a speaking situation as an enlarged
conversation, there are stylistic differences between the two.
a. A conversation is more interactive.
G. Constructing Sentences to Promote Clarity
1. Construct sentences with well-chosen words, but arrange those
words so that the sentences they form are direct and easy to follow.
3. Repetition and restatement can help make ideas stick.
a. Repetition is especially effective when the speaker wants
the audience to remember specific, vivid, or especially
4. Short, Concise Sentences
a. In oral style, sentences should be kept relatively short.
5. Modifiers
a. It is best to use only necessary modifiers.
b. Commenting modifiers include very, most, and definitely.
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
need to know.
H. Simplicity
III. Using Language that is Active and Interesting
Learning Objective 10.3—Choose language that is lively and vivid, using appeals
to the senses and figures of speech.
A. Use Active, Vivid Language
1. Action holds interest and commands attention. The way language
is chosen and put together can create a sense of action for listeners.
3. Listeners’ emotions are often engaged through the use of vivid
descriptions.
5. Listeners exposed to vivid and detailed narratives have a strong
likelihood of identifying with them.
6. Lively, vivid language is important but cannot make up for weak
ideas. Those ideas must be strong—able to withstand scrutiny.
B. Using Figures of Speech
2. Figures of speech are special ways of using language to heighten
3. Simile
4. Metaphor
a. Compares two objects that the audience might think of as
5. Antithesis
a. A way of putting together two things that have sharply
6. Irony
a. Through irony, a speaker can strongly imply a meaning that
7. Alliteration
8. Personification
9. Oxymoron
a. Though an oxymoron, a speaker can combine seemingly
10. Rhetorical Questions
a. Speakers use rhetorical questions to try to pique the
11. Parallelism
a. Parallelism can bring force, clarity, rhythm, and interest to
a speech.
b. Using parallel sentences or phrases of about equal length
also adds emphasis to particular ideas.
IV. Using Appropriate and Ethical Language
Learning Objective 10.4—Understand how language choices relate to audience
expectations.
A. Appropriateness
1. Language choices should be influenced by context.
3. A good speaker never “fakes” language to sound like someone
else.
4. It would also be unwise for a speaker to use the slang or technical
5. Certain aspects of a situation—the audience, the topic of the
speech, and the occasion or setting in which a speech takes place—
also should impact language choice.
B. Gender-Inclusive Language
2. The important point to keep in mind is that your audience will be
made up of both men and women, and the use of gender-inclusive
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
or gender-neutral language, examples of which can be found in
Figure 10.2, is expected by most modern audiences.
C. Audience Expectations
1. Consider what the audience is already likely to know and think
about the topic.
2. Consider the audience’s level of linguistic sophistication, how
4. You want to remain true to your own voice, but you also want to
take your audience’s expectations into account.
D. Ethical Language
1. Using language the audience considers offensive or tasteless is not
2. Mutual respect is the hallmark of ethical public speaking.
4. As partners in the communication process, both speakers and
5. This obligation extends even to the specific words chosen for use
in a speech.
7. Listeners who are offended by a speaker are much less likely to be
persuaded and may well be distracted from the content of a
message.
V. Responding Critically to a Speaker’s Style
Learning Objective 10.5—Avoid overreacting to style by focusing on the
substance of a speaker’s ideas.
A. Using Emotional Language Ethically
1. The ethical public speaker will never use language to whip the
audience into an emotional frenzy.
2. Ethical emotional appeals are backed up with strong evidence and
sound reasoning.
B. Style Substituted for Argument
1. Speakers have been known to dismiss an idea by not discussing it,
analyzing it, or examining its weaknesses or strengths, but simply
by labeling it.
a. Be wary of any such attempts and of highly emotional
language and labeling.
Chapter 10: Ideas & Materials for Instruction
Additional quotations worth noting (and possible stimuli for discussion/reflection):
We invent the world through language. The world occurs through language.
—Mal Pancoast
If we spoke a different language, we would perceive a somewhat different world.
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Instructional ideas for Chapter Ten
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