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Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
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Lecture Notes
Chapter 10: The Intercultural Conflict
Learning Objectives
10.1. Define intercultural conflict
10.2. Define facework and identify three primary facework strategies
10.3. List and define the five primary and three secondary styles of conflict communication
10.4. Identify and discuss the conflict styles preferred by individualistic and collectivistic
cultures
Chapter Outline
I. Definition of Intercultural Conflict
A. Intercultural conflict: The implicit or explicit emotional struggle between persons
of different cultures over perceived or actual incompatibility of cultural ideologies
and values, situational norms, goals, face orientations, scarce resources, styles/
processes, and/or outcomes in a face-to-face context.
B. Intercultural conflict: Involves a certain degree of ethnocentric perception and
judgment.
C. Kim’s Model of Intercultural Conflict
i. Intercultural conflict occurs at three interdependent and interrelated levels:
A micro or individual level; an intermediary level; and a macro or societal
level.
ii. Micro or individual level: Refers to the unique attitudes, dispositions, and
beliefs that everyone brings to the conflict.
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c. In-group bias refers to the degree to which the individual is
ethnocentric.
d. Insecurity/frustration refers to the degree to which the individual
has a high level of uncertainty about, and fear of, out-group
members.
iii. Intermediary level: Refers to the actual location and context of the
conflict.
a. Some environments (e.g., neighborhoods, school, work) may be
more likely than others to facilitate conflict.
e. Intergroup salience refers to the observable physical and social
differences between the conflicting individuals.
f. Majority group’s symbol system is dominant. Status discrepancy
refers to degree to which conflicting parties differ in status along
cultural lines.
iv. Macro or societal level: Includes factors that are probably out of the
interactants’ control. These conditions include any history of subjugation,
ideological/ structural inequality, and minority group strength.
a. History of subjugation of one group by another is a key
environmental factor in many intercultural conflicts. For example,
African Americans have long been subjugated by Whites in the
United States.
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D. A Culture-Based Social Ecological Conflict Model
i. Four main factors that come into play during an intercultural conflict
episode: Primary orientation factors, situational appraisals, Conflict
processes, Conflict competence.
ii. Primary orientation factors: What each individual brings to the conflict.
a. Each individual brings macro, exo, meso, and micro layers to the
conflict with macro meaning “larger than,” exo meaning “external
or outside,” meso meaning “middle or intermediate,” and micro
meaning “localized or small.”
c. Exo factors include formal institutions present in any culture,
including religious institutions, governments, and health care
systems, among others that are external to the individual but affect
his or her approach.
d. Meso-level factors refer to the more immediate dimensions of a
culture. For example, local church group, one’s workplace setting,
or even one’s extended family.
iii. Situational appraisals: Affect how each individual perceives (appraises)
the situation in which the conflict takes place.
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a. Macro situational features include the effects of globalization on a
situation, such as immigration. Oftentimes, immigrant groups are
faced with conflict from the native cultural groups.
iv. Conflict processes: The micro conflict processes include those factors that
emerge from the conflict interaction itself.
v. Conflict competence criteria and outcomes: Include effectiveness,
appropriateness, productivity, satisfaction, and principled ethics.
a. Appropriateness refers to the degree to which the individuals’
behaviors are suitable for the cultural context in which they occur.
b. Effectiveness refers to the degree to which the individuals achieve
mutually shared meaning, which leads to intercultural
understanding.
and to unproductive resolution as a “win–lose” conflict orientation.
vi. Win–Lose Conflict Orientation
a. Ignoring cultural differences.
b. Insensitivity to conflict context.
c. Arguing and defending self-interest.
d. Conflict mode.
e. Engaging in mindless behaviors.
f. Rigidity of conflict posture.
vii. Win–Win Conflict Orientation
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e. Practicing mindful conflict skills.
f. Willingness to change.
II. Intercultural Dialogue, Conflict Resolution, and a Culture of Peace
A. Dialogue: Dia means “through or across” and logos means “words or reason.”
B. Via dialogue, conflicting parties can reason with each other using communication
E. Dialogue makes possible sustained contact.
i. Conflict is often ongoing because conflicting parties are segregated or have
little contact with each other.
iv. Such contact can help conflicting parties reduce uncertainty and become
aware of each other’s perspectives, helping reduce hostility.
v. By segregating themselves, the conflicting parties make any kind of
empathy between groups impossible. But via dialogue, at least
understanding the other’s point of view becomes possible, which can then
lead to a reduction of hostility.
vi. As conflicting parties engage in interaction and begin to reduce hostility,
they can begin to develop respect for each other.
a. This, then, can lead to a culture of peace.
F. Building a culture of peace is a lengthy and difficult process: Unequal social and
economic conditions, beyond either party’s control, may prevent conflicting
parties from engaging in willful dialogue.
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III. The Concept of Face, Facework, and Communication Conflict Styles
A. Face
i. Face-negotiation theory: Concept of face explains how people of different
cultures manage conflict.
iii. Three types of face.
a. Self-face: Concern for one’s own image.
b. Other-face: Concern for another’s image.
c. Mutual-face: Concern for both parties’ images or that of the
relationship.
a. Persons of individualistic cultures have a greater concern for self-
face and a lesser concern for other-face than do members of
collectivistic cultures.
vi. The concept of face becomes particularly significant in situations when
uncertainty is high, as in conflict situations when the character of the
communicators might be called into question.
B. Facework
i. Facework: Communicative strategies employed to manage one’s own face
or to support or challenge another’s facer self-face. Facework can be
employed to initiate, manage, or terminate conflict.
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• Avoidance/pretend: dismissal of the conflict that does not
threaten the other’s face.
c. Integrating facework: Communicative behaviors that allow for the
shared concern for self- and other-face and strive for closure
during communication or conflict.
• Apologize: offer an apology for the conflict.
• Compromise: utilize direct discussion to resolve the conflict.
• Consider the other: show concern for the other.
iii. Cross-cultural research has shown.
a. Individualists, such as U.S. Americans, tend to prefer facework
behaviors that defend the self-face or confront the other.
b. Collectivists, such as Taiwanese and Chinese, tend to prefer other–
face strategies such as avoiding the conflict, seeking a third party,
or giving in to the other. Collectivists also prefer mutual-face
facework such as attempting to solve the problem through a third
party, having a private discussion, or apologizing.
C. Conflict Communication Styles
i. Conflict interaction styles: Refer to ways individuals manage actual
conflict.
ii. Two communication dimensions: Self-face need and an other-face need.
a. The first is the degree to which a person asserts a self-face need that
is, seeks to satisfy his or her own interests during conflict.
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e. Three secondary styles: Emotional expression, third-party help, and
neglect.
v. Compromising: The person who tries to balance both self-face and other-
face needs.
a. This person would probably use a “give-and-take” approach and
might propose some middle ground for resolving the conflict,
understanding that each party may have to give up something to
gain something.
viii. Emotional expression: How one might use his or her emotions to guide
conflict.
a. This is demonstrated by the type of person who listens to his or her
base feelings and proceeds accordingly.
ix. Third-party help: Extent to which a person is willing to engage an outsider
to act as a go-between in the conflict.
x. Neglect: Use of a passive-aggressive approach, whereby a person might
ignore the conflict but attempt to elicit a response from the other via
aggressive acts.
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c. Korean and U.S. students were less likely to engage in obliging
styles than were Chinese, Japanese, and Taiwanese students.
d. U.S. citizens were less confrontational during conflict than were
Koreans, a culture considered to be collectivistic.
IV. The Intercultural Conflict Style Inventory
A. ICS Inventory: A theoretical model and assessment tool used by professional
mediators and trainers to diagnose and manage intercultural conflicts.
i. Mitchell Hammer developed a model of intercultural conflict based on his
Intercultural Conflict Style (ICS) Inventory.
B. People respond in patterned ways to conflict and that their communication styles
are predictable.
C. Conflict style: Behavioral component of conflict that follows from the cognitive
(i.e., disagreement) and affective (i.e., negative emotional reaction) dimensions of
conflict.
i. Conflict style is learned culturally.
ii. Five conflict styles based on an individual’s concern for self– or other-face
have been developed within individualistic, Western cultural conceptions
and that these models may not adequately reflect intercultural conflict
styles.
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v. One’s intercultural conflict style is defined by one’s direct or indirect
communication about disagreements and his or her emotionally expressive
E. Indirect communication: Use of ambiguous language, or hinting, and the burden of
understanding rests with both the sender and the receiver.
i. Associated with collectivistic and high-context cultures: Emotionally
restrained individuals minimize gesturing, mask their emotions both
verbally and nonverbally, hold back their sentiments, and control their
ii. Engagement style: The person who is direct in his or her communication
and is also emotionally expressive.
a. This person is confrontational about the disagreement and forthright
with his or her emotions.
b. This is the type of style that “pulls no punches.”
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a. Verbally, this person may use exaggeration and repetition of his or
her messages while also employing a nonverbal, emotionally
confrontational form of expression.
G. ICS inventory: An instrument that measures these four styles. Useful in applied
settings, such as organizations and even families.
i. After the conflicting parties recognize their own style and that of their
counterpart, they can better manage conflict.
V. Individualistic and Collectivistic Approaches to Conflict
A. Outcome- and process-oriented approach.
i. Individualists tend to follow an outcome-oriented approach to intercultural
conflict. It emphasizes the importance of asserting their self-identity in the
conflict and the accomplishment of perceived tangible outcomes or goals.
ii. Collectivists tend to follow a process-oriented approach.
a. Focuses on mutual-face or group-face interests. These interests are
sought prior to, or in lieu of, any tangible outcomes or goals.
B. Specific characteristics of outcome-oriented approach.
a. To the individualist, conflict is closely related to the goals or
outcomes. Conflict is “end” oriented, in that the individualist seeks
to achieve something.
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f. Successful management of conflict is defined as when individual
goals and the differences between the parties are addressed openly
and honestly.
C. Specific characteristics of process-oriented approach.
a. The significance of the conflict is assessed against any face threat
incurred in the conflict; it is also evaluated in terms of in-group
versus out-group.
b. Conflict is seen as threatening when the parties move forward on
substantive issues before proper facework management.
D. Outcome-oriented model preferred by individualists encourages an effective finish
to the conflict over the appropriate treatment of the parties involved.
E. The collectivist-preferred process-oriented model emphasizes the appropriate
treatment of the parties involved over an effective solution.
F. Accomplishment of one criterion may help accomplish the other.
G. Mindfulness: Each person is mindful of cultural differences, mindful of the
different goals, and willing to experiment with different conflict management
styles.
VI. Conflict Resolution in High- Versus Low-Context Cultures
A. Focus on verbal and nonverbal codes:
i. In low-context cultures, persons choose to focus more on the verbal codes
than on the nonverbal elements.
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ii. In high-context cultures, people actively monitor the nonverbal elements
of the context.
B. Conflict issue and the persons involved:
i. In low-context cultures, individuals are more likely to separate the conflict
issue from the persons involved.
ii. In high- context cultures, the conflict issue and the persons involved are
typically connected.
VII. Resolving Cross-Cultural Conflict: A Contingency Model
A. When individuals experience and respond to cross-cultural conflict, they are faced
with a dilemma.
i. To what extent do they adapt to the other person’s cultural ideologies and
values, and to what extent do they adhere to their own culture’s ideologies
and values?
ii. To the extent that people adapt to the other person’s cultural values, they
may be following the familiar adage “When in Rome, do as the Romans
do.” Or instead, do they hold fast to their native cultural values?
B. Several communication strategies one can use when addressing cross-cultural
conflicts.
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iv. Infiltration: With this strategy, one introduces his or her value orientation,
hoping that the opposing party will see the value and adopt it.
vii. Collaboration/Problem Solving: With this approach, the conflicting
parties work together to find a mutually agreeable solution in which each
party accomplishes his or her goal without compromise.
a. This is the win–win strategy.
C. Specific strategy one uses in cross-cultural conflict is contingent on at least three
factors:
i. The central values at stake in the conflict (i.e., centrality) and the degree to
which such values are held by the majority (i.e., consensus).
D. Centrality and Consensus
i. Not all conflicts are equal in terms of the centrality of the cultural values at
stake and the consensus with which they are held.
ii. One must assess the centrality of the conflicting values in gauging what
kind of communicative strategy to adopt.
a. Peripheral values may have to be sacrificed in order to maintain
cross-cultural relationships.
E. Individual’s ability: Degree to which an individual has influence over the conflict.
i. In some cases, an individual may not have any control or ability to affect
the outcome of the conflict, while in other cases an individual may have
considerable control.
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F. Urgency: This refers to the timeline that is needed to resolve the conflict.
i. In some cases, there will be pressure, perhaps even a deadline, for which
the conflict needs to be resolved quickly.
ii. Else, the conflicting parties may have enough time to resolve it.
G. Scenario #1: Late for Meetings
i. Urgency: Low.
a. Gene Lanoye is a U.S. manager for Acme Corporation based in
Acme’s Mexico office in Cuernavaca.
b. Gene manages a team of nine Mexican workers and holds routine
Monday morning meetings at 8:00 a.m. to brief the team about the
week ahead.
• Gene is frustrated because many of his employees are often
late to the meeting, and some do not show at all.
• Gene doesn’t know how handle the situation.
e. Many U.S. managers have complained that their Mexican
employees are often late for such meetings or sometimes do not
attend at all.
f. In this case, we have a conflict that is relatively low in urgency, of
high intensity and the U.S. manager carries considerable influence
over his employees, given that Mexico is a large power distance
culture.
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i. To be sure, there may be instances in which an emergency occurs,
and Gene needs to schedule an urgent meeting.
• Here, because the urgency is high and Gene carries influence,
he may be forced to require that his employees attend a
meeting at the precisely scheduled time and mete out
punishment if his employees are late.
H. Scenario #2: Write A Paper or Give A Presentation?
i. Urgency: Low.
ii. Intensity Centrality + Consensus: Low.
a. Jim and Akira are students at a university in the United States.
• Jim is from Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Akira is an
international exchange student from Japan.
b. Jim and Akira have only interacted occasionally and do not know
each other very well.
e. Coming from an individualistic, low-context culture, Jim might
prefer to give a presentation.
f. In this situation, because the assignment is not due for 2 more
weeks, the urgency is relatively low.
• The intensity is relatively low as well.
• There is probably not a strong consensus on whether to write
a paper or deliver a presentation.
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• Finally, since both Jim and Akira are students, neither
possesses any hierarchical status over the other.
• Here, the contingency model would prescribe that the two
students negotiate.
I. Scenario #3: Too Much Touching
i. Urgency: High.
ii. Intensity Centrality + Consensus: Low.
a. Morgan is a student from the United States who is studying abroad
for a semester in Ecuador.
• Morgan has taken on a part-time job as a waitress in a
restaurant in Quito, the capital city of Ecuador.
b. During the prime-time dinner hour, the kitchen area is hectic with
chefs, kitchen staff, and the wait staff, working diligently in close
quarters.
d. Cultures vary along a high-, moderate-, and low-contact continuum.
• High-contact cultures tend to encourage touching and engage
in touching more frequently than do either moderate- or
low-contact cultures, in which touching occurs less
frequently and is generally discouraged.
f. During peak dining hours, there is some degree of urgency to get the
food orders prepared and delivered to the customers.
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g. The intensity is rather low: Serving guests in a restaurant is
important but probably is not as central a value among Ecuadorians
as is family.
J. Scenario #4: Bribery?
i. Urgency: High.
ii. Intensity Centrality + Consensus: High.
iii. Influence: Low.
iv. Strategy: Avoiding.
v. Overview of the scenario.
a. Jeff Zahn is a U.S. businessman who has been approached by some
of his Chinese business acquaintances about opening a business in
China that may prove very useful to many Chinese and profitable
to Zahn.
d. The conflict is relatively urgent, as deadlines need to be met.
e. The intensity for Jeff is high because of the ethical issue of paying
bribes.
• Such acts are clearly illegal in the United States, but because
Jeff is from the United States, he has little control over the
issue.